Marketing Model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marketing Model - Essay Example There is also a need of having knowledge and understanding on the consumer’s behavior and their motivation for buying the products under consideration. Other areas of knowledge are the customer’s preferences and awareness concerning the product under consideration. On this basis, there is a need of integrating all these strategies for purposes of achieving efficiency in marketing (Rosenbloom, 2013). On this basis, the functions of marketing in the 21st century is integrating the wants and needs of customers to the other functions of the organization such as finance, Research and Development, production and personnel. On this basis, in the 21st century, marketing alone does not hold the success of the organization. This also applies to the other functions of the organization. However, it is the role of marketing to integrate the functions of different departments for purposes of promoting the goals and objectives of the business organization (Kotler, 2010). An example of a company that failed to integrate all its departments is Urea, a fertilizer manufacturing company. The company recently found itself in a stiff completion from foreign and local companies producing similar products. However, the company did not concern itself with improving its prices, quality of the products, its packaging and selling strategies. The marketing department and other departments of the organization worked separately, and at crossroads. This led to the loss of its market share to its various competitors. On this basis, there was a need of the management of Urea to define its marketing strategies, and give it the integrative role (Sheehan, 2011). This would help the company to regain its market share, and achieve profitability. From the above example, we can denote that effective marketing will lead to the profitability of a business organization (Rosenbloom, 2013). However, other functions of the organization such

Sports in Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Sports in Culture - Essay Example From thi' corpu', The Martial Art' draw' more than two hundred beautifully reproduced and pertinent illu'tration' of it' 'ubject matter. It would be no exaggeration to call thi' book the mo't important work on hi'torical fencing and European martial art' in more than 100 year'. With it Dr. Anglo e'tabli'he' him'elf a' the unque'tioned modern expert on the 'ubject of Medieval and Renai''ance martial art' hi'tory . He doe' not merely 'hed light on long held myth' and mi'conception', he unlea'he' a white-hot 'potlight on many mi'taken belief' and 'acred cow'. Dr. Anglo make' an airtight ca'e that the 'kill' de'cribed within hi'torical European fighting text' mu't be properly 'tudied a' "martial art'", and not a' the traditional view of merely "fencing" (in the modern 'en'e of the word). For mo't all of it' hi'tory "fencing" meant not ju't 'wordplay, but the armed 'kill' of fighting with weapon' and alway' included unarmed technique' (Anglo, 11-32). At 384 page' and with more than 200 illu'tration' thi' i' an immen'e trea'ure-trove for all tho'e intere'ted in 'word'man'hip and the hi'tory of European combat. The magnitude and wealth of information contained on ma'ter' of arm' and their work' from the 13th to the 17th centurie' i', to put it 'imply, incredible. Dr. Anglo begin' hi' volume not with a "hi'tory of fencing", but with the documentation for "ma'ter' of arm'" (or ma'ter' of defence) within European civilization. Hi' primary concern i' how they created 'y'tem' of notation to convey information about combat movement, the variou' way' they went about achieving thi' communication, and what they thought they were achieving a' a re'ult. He e'tabli'he' that, fitting within the cla''ic We'tern tradition of art' and letter', many ma'ter' of arm' were purpo'ely recording their martial teaching' a' literary work' for the education of future 'tudent'. He achieve' a detailed ta'k of putting the work' of the ma'ter' of arm' into the ir hi'torical and 'ocial context while di'cu''ing the limitation' of re'earching the'e text'. He al'o pre'ent' the material with frequent dry humor and appreciation for irony (Holling', 1453-1659). The book i' hard to put down and plea'antly written to avoid either academic jargon or lightheartedne''. Mo't any chapter can be opened and read on it' own. Though at time' not an ea'y read (keep your dictionary handy) and while occa'ionally leaving the reader begging for further clarification at hi' tea'ing reference', the range of the material covered i' impre''ive. The work contain' fa'cinating 'ection' on definition' of 'word' and rapier' in hi'torical document' a' well a' other' 'uch a' "Foot Combat With 'word': Myth' and Realtie'", "Diagram', Mathematic', and Geometry in 'wordplay", "Lawyer', Humani't', and the Martial Art'", and "Arm' and armor". Annoyingly however, the footnote' are all in the back, which make' it inconvenient to look up what are in many ca'e' highly relevant comment'. Intere'tingly, what the book i' not i' a chronological 'ummary of every hi'torical fencing ma'ter from the period with a detailed de'cription their 'ignificance and their technique'. In'tead, we are given many valuable in'ight' and ob'ervation' on the work' of the

An Overview Of Marriott International Information Systems Essay

An Overview Of Marriott International Information Systems Essay In total, Marriott operates hotels under fourteen different brands, with four brands in full-service lodging, three in select-service lodging, three in extended-stay lodging and four in timeshare. This extensive accommodation portfolio is combined with a synthetic fuel production facility, which Marriott operates as a joint venture. (Global Market Information Database, 2005) Given the wide size and scope of Marriotts operations around the globe, information systems are vital to the smooth running of Marriotts hotel operations, thus this piece will examine how they have fit into such a diverse portfolio. Introduction Many business organisations in todays information age have holistic, broad views of business operations, and tailor them to accommodate the different types of individual business units or operations within their portfolio. In the past, companies were relatively self-contained and information management was straightforward, but the diverse business needs of the modern environment, including strategy formulation, process definition, product portfolio definition and construction, capital equipment ownership, technology, infrastructure and operations can no longer be kept on such a tight rein as many companies held them a decade ago. (Olson, 2005) The way enterprises manage their operations has been changed, in fundamental ways, by the information age, and these new approaches are applied by corporations to strategically manage operations and diverse portfolios with virtually every new initiative, whether it is internal transformation, where direct control of risk factors is very high but technology is new; with partners, where direct control over risk factors is shared; or with other stakeholders where direct control over risk factors is often very low. As such, it is important that diverse, multinational operators, such as Marriott International, have solid, manageable information systems in place, to better enable them to manage their diverse operations and investments. As such, this piece aims to use various sources of secondary research to analyse some of the systems Marriott International uses to manage its hotel and catering operations information across its global hotel holdings. Procedure / Research My primary method of research has been to use online databases, such as EBSCO host, MINTEL and Euromonitor, to find relevant articles, both on the use of information systems in business operations in general, and more specifically on the use of information systems within Marriott Internationals business model. One of the main, and most well known, uses of information systems by Marriott International is its focus on technology initiatives to boost the companys sales. In order to accomplish this, the company has implemented a detailed customer-relationship management package from Siebel Systems Inc., and engaged in a plan to upgrade its central reservations, revenue and property management systems, allowing customers to view and book rooms online. (Rosen, 2001) Another, less well know and less obvious area where Marriott International uses information systems is across its many in house catering departments. To aid with this, the company has completed a rollout of the ChefTec recipe management, food costing and inventory system, a Windows-based platform developed by Culinary Software Services Inc. Marriott International corporate executive chef Peter DAndrea expressed enthusiasm with the new system and discussed the operators previous menu management process. (Nations Restaurant News, 1999) For example, the system means that recipes can be converted automatically from domestic, to metric scales, to imperial amounts in the United Kingdom, where Marriott has many properties. The operator also has versions of software in several languages, including English, Spanish and German, and is working on one in Mandarin Chinese. Marriott also added its own glossary of culinary terms, optimum cooking times for off-used foods and a year-round planning feature, which helps chefs with seasonal menus; for example it informs them that March is the peak month for asparagus. Denver-based Culinary Software Services also worked closely with Marriott to cull about 2,500 of its recipes and 500 pictures and replicate them onto CD-ROMs, which were be distributed to more than 400 of Marriotts full-service hotels in the United States and abroad. (Nations Restaurant News, 1999) Taking advantage of ChefTecs core and advanced features, Marriott International also will be able to do the following: organize inventories based on bids from multiple vendors; search for recipes by ingredients, categories and names; attach photographs and video files to recipes; and save recipes in the hypertext markup language, which will allow chefs to distribute them over the Internet. Findings / Analysis In the context of the hotel industry, computers and information systems do three things very well, all of which are important in the hotel and catering industry. One, they handle large amounts of data. Two, they communicate at the speed of light. And three, they follow rules. (Hamstra, 1997) These factors are hugely important when managing a 3,000 hotel portfolio across seventy countries around the world. Not only must information, including booking and reservation data, be shared quickly with all other properties, but it must also be accurate, and in line with the companys overall strategy. Toward that end, the company has recently tested an Intranet prototype called Oasis, which is designed to give unit-level managers instant access to the information they need to run their locations, and manage relationships with their customers. (Rosen, 2001) Accounting is one of the more obvious areas in which technology has an impact on Marriott operations, as although most units have typically been equipped with basic software programs, much like small businesses, over eighty percent of period-end transactions are now handled electronically by year-end. (Rosen, 2001) The company is about halfway through its rollout of the Xcellenet system, which allows operators at the unit level to download software from corporate headquarters and to digitally transmit accounting reports via phone lines. However, the company keeps a wary eye on its technology expenditures, often using existing technologies longer than other businesses would. Although the entire Marriott organization spent $100 million on technology in 1997 (Hamstra, 1997), the lodging side of the company generally has the greatest need for the most advanced systems in its global hotel network. Often systems are tested and implemented in the lodging division before being adopted by the catering and other departments. In human resources, Marriott is putting advanced technology to use both in recruiting and training, including the companys Alexus system, which uses laser-scanning technology for the electronic storage of resumes, which can be accessed via the Internet by human resources personnel. When a position needs to be filled, Alexus automatically sorts through the resumes in its database to display those that represent the most qualified applicants. The company also sees a bright future for its CD-ROM interactive training program, which was developed in-house (Rosen, 2001). The product, which is used in conjunction with workbooks, gives unit-level managers an orientation to Marriott International, and subsequent segments in the series provide training in such areas as conducting pre-shift meetings, planning a menu and arranging reservations. Although Marriott is still in the early stages of the rollout of this technology: as of 2001, the second CD in the series was in a 40-unit test and the third was in a five-unit test, the company had already achieved significant time savings in training through use of the program, according to Fran Szabo, director of interactive training at MMS. (Rosen, 2001) The companys information systems and technology are also reaching the stage when they can be used to enhance the services the company provides to its business clients. The same employees who eat in the company cafeteria may someday be able to click on an icon on their computer screen that allows them to order food to take home or to gain access to other services, such as car detailing, and business clients who like the recipes served in the restaurant may be able to do likewise. Technology also plays a role in food production, with about 20 percent of the companys units using some form of automation in the production process, primarily in menu control. Here, however, the fundamental stumbling block will be in following rules: If somebody says, My moms apple pie is better than the standard recipe, then the next thing you know, youve got 120 different recipes for apple pie and you lose your procurement leverage. (Hamstra, 1997) Another massive impact of information systems on Marriotts business is the impact of providing free-to-guest internet access technology on the hoteliers revenue. When this technology first came on the scene, hoteliers saw it as an opportunity for revenue generation, however as time progressed, it became a necessity for guests, as well as part of the strategy to create exceptional value. For instance, at Marriott International Inc.s Courtyard and SpringHill Suites brands, guests are taking advantage of the high-speed Internet access service for more than just electronic-mail. They are accessing digital music and other types of digital content, and Marriott is currently responsible for the costs of this. (Shaw, 2005) However, as reliable, free to guest internet access becomes more and more of a requirement for guests, Marriott is being forced to build these costs into its business model, and thus is able to take a more holistic approach to customer information technology and systems across its business. This enables Marriott to gain supply chain leverage in this area, thus reducing the costs of information systems and Internet access across the group as a whole. Conclusions and recommendations By aligning the IT strategy with the business strategy over the past three years, Marriotts senior management has grown to consider technology as an investment rather than an expense. The concept of assigning a business lead and an IT lead to all major projects that are technology-enabled starts at the executive level (Computerworld, 2001), and executive decision-making meetings, such as Marriotts Business Strategy Review, e-Business Council and Digital Business Strategy, are all cross-functional and co-led. As a result, IT better understands and supports Marriotts business strategy, and business executives have a much better understanding of what technology can and cant do. This provides Marriott with a sustainable competitive advantage. CIO Magazine named Marriott International to its Top 100 list for the fifth time. Marriott is the only hotel on the list, which recognizes organizations for excellence in information technology. (Lodging Hospitality, 2004) Marriotts presence on this list clearly demonstrates the companys commitment to developing its information systems, and using them to support its business. Given that Marriotts revenue grew by 44% between 1999 and 2004, and profits grew by 49% over the same period (Global Market Information Database, 2005) at the time of the companys latest investments in information systems, it is clear from this that information systems are vital to the smooth running of a major multinational hotel operation and, indeed, this provides evidence that information systems are vital for any major business operation. Also, in order to further growth, Marriott is likely to focus strongly on international expansion, which is crucial, as Marriotts portfolio is currently highly reliant on US hotel sales. As a result, Marriott must focus on developing the speed and accuracy of its information systems to facilitate this growth, and stay in its current, market leading, position. References Computerworld (2001) In their own voices. Vol. 35, Issue 13, p. 42. Global Market Information Database (2005) Marriott International Inc. Euromonitor International. Hamstra, M. (1997) Marriott finds no cookie-cutter solutions for technology. Nations Restaurant News; Vol. 31, Issue 10, p. 110. Lodging Hospitality. (2004) Tech Bytes. Vol. 60, Issue 13, p. 54. Nations Restaurant News (1999) Marriott Internationals ChefTec makes recipe filing a snap. Vol. 33, Issue 20, p. 86. Olson, E. G. (2005) Strategically managing risk in the information age: a holistic approach. Journal of Business Strategy; Vol. 26, Issue 6, p. 45. Rosen, C. (2001) Marriott Uses CRM Application To Boost Sales. InformationWeek; Issue 843, p. 73. Shaw, R. (2005) Free-to-guest services migrate from revenue streams. Hotel Motel Management; Vol. 220, Issue 18, p. 26.

Dear Shakespeare: A Critique Of The Tempest Essay -- essays research p

Dear Shakespeare: A Critique of The Tempest To Mr. William Shakespeare,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I am going to get right down to business. I am writing to you regarding our recent collaboration on The Tempest. In my opinion I think we need to make a couple of changes. The first is in regards to Caliban and the second has to do with Prospero.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As I was reading the section of the play where Caliban takes Stephano as his master I began to think about how he should be wiser by now. As is Caliban begs a drunken Stephano to be his master. In my opinion Caliban should show development by not drinking and possibly taking advantage of the drunk Stephano and Trinculo. It should develop in this fashion:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Caliban:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I believe that I can assist you in your stay on the island.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stephano:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What mean you beast?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Caliban:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I prithee, let me bring thee where crabs grow, And I with my long nails will dig thee pignuts, Show thee a jay's nest, and instruct thee how To snare the nimble marmoset. I'll bring thee To clustering filberts, and I'll teach thee to get Young scamels from the rock. Does't though attend me? Stephano: I do. For all this service what want'st you in return. Caliban: I ask but one simple service. The death of my tyrant master. Stephano...

Large industrial facility Essay

1. Describe how the use of a tall smoke stack might improve air quality near a large industrial facility. Tall smoke stacks built 500 ft or taller can improve air quality for a large industrial facility, by â€Å"releasing air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides high into the atmosphere to help limit the impact† to the near by areas (Air, 2011, p. 2). The use of tall smoke stack is also believed to contribute to a wider spread of air pollutants. 2. How can topography contribute to pollution in a city or region? Topography and weather are big contributors to a city pollutions. Most cities are built in a valley and not on top of a mountain, which makes it hard for the air to circulate. This traps the pollution into an area resulting in a poor air quality. (Factors, n.d.) 3. From where do hurricanes derive their energy? What factors tend to weaken hurricanes? Would you expect a hurricane to weaken more quickly if it moved over land or over cooler water? â€Å"Hurricanes derive their energy from the warm, tropical oceans and by evaporating water from the ocean’s surface. Heat energy is converted to wind energy when the water vapor condenses and latent heat is released inside deep convective clouds† (Ahrens, 2014, p. 341). Hurricanes can weaken more quickly if it moves over cooler water, because they get their energy from warm tropical oceans. 4. Where is the Bermuda high located during the summer and fall? How might the path of a hurricane, moving toward the west from Africa, be affected by the Bermuda High as the hurricane approaches the United States? During the summer and fall the Bermuda high forms over the Atlantic Ocean. Hurricanes moving toward the west from Africa may increase its intensity as it approaches the United States. The Bermuda High â€Å"not only heats up summer-time temperatures in the East, but the Bermuda High can affect the  intensity of tropical storms and hurricanes† (Bermuda, 2013). 5. How do you think pollutants are removed from the atmosphere? Does this occur quickly or slowly? Pollutants in the atmosphere can be removed by trees and plants. The trees and plants absorb CO2 and other pollutants, then produce oxygen for the atmosphere. The removing of pollutants in the air is a slow progress and some pollutants never go away. Ahrens, C. D. (2014). Essentials of Meteorology: An Invitation to the Atmosphere, 7th Edition. [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from http://online.vitalsource.com/books/9781305439733/id/ch11-L3-5 Air quality. (2011). GAO. Retrieved from http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d11473.pdf Bermuda high is cause of most east coast summer heat. (2013) Weather Bug. Retrieved from http://weather.weatherbug.com/weather-news/weather-reports.html?story=8263 Factors affecting air quality. (n.d.) BC Air Quality. Retrieved from http://www.bcairquality.ca/101/air-quality-factors.html

Uses of Hris in Recruitment Process

INFORMATION SYTEMS AND RECRUITMENT Among the many definitions of Human Resource Management (HRM), this paper will approach it from a sistemic perspective. That is to say, HRM comprises the whole range of activities from the need to fill a free post to the time when an employee leaves the firm. The first one is the recruitment process, which is divided into three stages: Application, selection and socialization. This paper will leave out the latter, focusing in the use of HRIS (Human Resources Information Systems) for the recruitment process until the final appointment decision.Specifically, the first decision to be made by the firm is whether the recruitment will be internal or external. Table 1 shows a comparative between the pros and cons of each type of recruitment. As it can be seen, the internal recruitment has, initially, more advantages than the external. This is why several academics (e. g. Deguy, 1989; Pena Baztan, 1990 and Diez de Castro et al. , 2002) recommend this option whenever it is feasible and suitable. Only in those cases that this is not valid or sufficient, the firm must resort to external recruitment. Nevertheless, it is necessary to keep in mind that this statement is to be taken cautiously.There is no perfect recruitment method; the choice will have to be made considering the particular circumstances of the firm and its objectives. European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (EMCIS) 2006, July 6-7 2006, Costa Blanca, Alicante, Spain J. A. Fernandez-Sanchez et al. Use of HRIS in recruitment process. The Spanish case. 2 Internal recruitment External recruitment advantages disadvantages Advantages disadvantages Low cost Limited offer Higher number of candidates High cost Faster results Interest conflicts Slower Better knowledge of candidates Lack of authority due to excess of trustNo prior knowledge of candidates Shorter socialization period Lack of innovation and new ideas Encourage change and innovation Longer socializati on period Business culture is fortified Business culture may stagnate Encourage modifications in culture Likely cultural shock Increases motivation between employees Likely discontent among non-selected May de-motivate Increases the build up of knowledge Factor for attraction and upkeep of staff Table 1. Internal vs. external recruitment The optimal use of internal recruitment processes requires possessing an updated and accurate knowledge of the personnel of the firm (Leal Millan et al. 1999), for which a HRIS can be used. The simplest and cheapest of them all, most likely, is a human resource inventory (also known as Internal IS): a database or registrar in which the largest amount of information possible is kept. Basic data to be included in this database are the personal details, the recruitment dates, the positions held, promotions, and other observations regarding their performance and potential (Pena Baztan, 1990). Following this, it must be reminded that the internal recruit ment sources are to be employed wisely, because, on occasion, they may lead to deception instead of motivation.Likewise, in order to ensure that all internal and external (if any) applications are considered equally, the former should be complemented with the most complete information available (Besseyre des Horts, 1988). Considering this frame of work, this paper intends to test two main hypotheses on the topic of the use of these recruitment sources from an empirical point of view. On the one hand, regarding the relationship between HRIS and internal recruitment processes: Hypothesis 1: â€Å"The firms that deploy HRIS in their internal recruitment processes will perform better than those who do not do it†.On the other hand, following those authors that recommend internal over external recruitment decisions, the research inquires whether: Hypothesis 2: â€Å"The firms that prefer internal recruitment decisions over external recruitment will perform better than those who do not do it†. Nevertheless, the implications that the assertion or rejection of these statements will not be fully understood unless a descriptive analysis of the presence and usage of business HRIS is carried out. This will be done prior to the actual test of the hypotheses alleged above.European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (EMCIS) 2006, July 6-7 2006, Costa Blanca, Alicante, Spain J. A. Fernandez-Sanchez et al. Use of HRIS in recruitment process. The Spanish case. 3 2 DATA ANALYSIS To study the two hypotheses, along with some descriptive data, a nation-wide empirical research was performed. It was founded on the results of a prior research limited to the province of Alicante (Spain), in which the questionnaire was tested and the model was validated. SCOPE Spain POPULATION 3000 Firms with more than 200 employees SAMPLE 334 valid answers (11,1%)STANDARD ERROR 5,2%1 Table 2. Technical data of the empirical research The T test, used to determine the infere nce of the observations, concluded that there were no significant differences between the group of firms that did answer and that who did not. Consequently, the data here shown can be considered as valid indicators of the behaviour of the Spanish firms with more than 200 employees. 2. 1 Use of HRIS in the firm: a descriptive analysis Before the two main hypotheses are tested, a complimentary analysis of the findings may lead to a better understanding of the implications of this research.This part of the study will deal with the descriptive analysis of the use of HRIS in the firm. The first dimension to be concerned about is the type of information system implemented by these firms (see Table 3). Traditional (manual) Files Computerised HRIS Management of C. V. online F % V% C% F % V% C% F % V% C% YES 259 77,5 77,5 77,5 165 49,4 49,7 49,7 207 62,0 62,3 62,3 NO 75 22,5 22,5 100,0 167 50,0 50,3 100,0 125 37,4 37,7 100,0 Total 334 100,0 100,0 332 99,4 100,0 332 99,4 100,0 F=Frequency %=P ercentage V%= Valid percentage C%= Cumulative percentage Table 3.Most common applications of HRIS A few facts stand out in table 3. For starters, over two thirds of the firms (77,5%) use manual HRIS, i. e. traditional files. This is likely due to their lower cost and easier handling. As for the most sophisticated systems, this is, the computerised HRIS, barely half of the firms employ them, although this has shown an increasing tendency when compared to the results of the previous experimental research (in early 2004, only a 38,6% of the firms gave an affirmative answer).The motivations underneath this evolution include the sheer necessity to adapt to the requirements of a more complex organization, the desire to imitate those successful firms that had implemented them, or the uprising of more knowledgeable managers in present time businesses, among others. Regarding the deployment of applications for managing C. V. s online (retrieving them and storing the information adequately), it seems easy and useful enough to be accepted by 62% of the organizations. Regarding the use of HRIS in the recruitment policy, table 4 shows that every stage may benefit from them.Even though, their degree of application is inversely related to the timing and the complexity of 1 This error has been calculated for N=3000, assuming p=q and a confidence interval of 95%. European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (EMCIS) 2006, July 6-7 2006, Costa Blanca, Alicante, Spain J. A. Fernandez-Sanchez et al. Use of HRIS in recruitment process. The Spanish case. 4 the task. As it was observed before, more sophisticated HRIS (and, therefore, able to assist in more complex tasks such as decision making processes) are implemented by a smaller number of firms. Reception of pplications Data storage Data retrieval Decision making processes F % V% C% F % V% C% F % V% A% F % V% C% YES 294 88. 0 91. 0 91. 0 285 85. 3 88. 2 88. 2 216 64. 7 66. 9 66. 9 151 42. 2 46. 7 46. 7 NO 29 8. 7 9. 0 100 38 11. 4 11. 8 100 107 32. 0 33. 1 100 172 51. 5 53. 3 100 Total 323 96. 7 100 323 96. 7 100 323 96. 7 100 323 96. 7 100 F=Frequency %=Percentage V%= Valid percentage C%= Cumulative percentage Table 4. Use of HRIS in different recruitment stages In sum, table 5 shows that 36,5% of the firms do use some HRIS application for all four recruitmentrelated tasks, which indicate two conclusions: ) HRIS are not an exclusive tool, but they are seldom used in combination with other methods; and b) These applications are good enough as assistants and support devices, but they will never be able to substitute human criterion. Frequency Cumulative frequency % Valid % Cumulative % 0 14 14 4,2 4,2 4,2 1 28 42 8,4 8,4 12,6 2 80 122 24,0 24,0 36,5 3 90 212 26,9 26,9 63,5 4 122 334 36,5 36,5 100,0 Total* 334 100,0 100,0 *0= no HRIS; 1= HRIS for only one task; 2= HRIS for two tasks; and so on. Table 5. Number of tasks performed through HRISFinally, there was an interest in seeing whether seve ral structural characteristics of these firms were significantly related to the use of HRIS. It can be seen in table 6 that only two classifications are affected by the use of HRIS: parent firms over subsidiaries, and the larger firms. These results respond to the logic that both types of organizations require a more complex structure, which may influence in their decision of relying on HRIS for leaner and more efficient recruitment tasks. VARIABLES CHI-SQUARED DEGREES OF FREEDOM SIGN. Family Business 4,241 4 ,374Parent /subsidiary 19,832 6 ,003 Public/private 1,295 4 ,862 Industry 36,434 28 ,132 % Permanent staff 13,960 12 ,303 Number of employees 28,320 8 ,000 Table 6. Use of HRIS concerning other classification treats European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (EMCIS) 2006, July 6-7 2006, Costa Blanca, Alicante, Spain J. A. Fernandez-Sanchez et al. Use of HRIS in recruitment process. The Spanish case. 5 2. 2 Hypothesis 1: The firms that deploy HRIS in their inte rnal recruitment processes will perform better than those who do not do itThe first hypothesis is tested with the aid of a new variable created for the purpose of measuring whether the firms use internal recruitment methods based on HRIS applications. A Chi-squared test, carried out on the actual results against the null hypothesis, assesses that the actual results are different enough to overcome a certain probability that they are due to sampling error with a statistical significance of 0,045, thus confirming the assertion of hypothesis 1.Hence, it is found that those firms that rely on internal recruitment processes based on HRIS applications have better outcomes in the performance of the appointed person than those who do not. Table 7 shows the observed frequencies and how this fact may affect the overall performance of the recruitment process. Regarding the firms’ impression on the effects of using HRIS to recruit good candidates, the majority of those that implement the m (89,3%) agree in considering this fact â€Å"quite† or â€Å"plenty† beneficial. It is outstanding as well the fact that only one of them has marked this item as â€Å"No beneficial at all†.Perceived outcomes recruitment/ selection No beneficial at all A little Quite Plenty Yes Internal recruitment and HRIS 1 (0. 3%) 31 (10. 3%) 209 (69. 4%) 60 (19. 9%) No 0 (0. 0%) 7 (21. 2%) 25 (75. 8%) 1 (3. 0%) Table 7. Concurrence of HRIS usage and internal recruitment. Effects on recruitment results. In addition, in order to find if the use of HRIS has a positive influence on the outcomes of the recruiting process, another Chi-squared test shows that a relationship is established between the independent variable (Use of HRIS) and the dependent one (Perceived outcomes of the process), with a 0,000 statistical significance.Therefore, it is statically confirmed that a greater application of HRIS contribute in a positive manner to the outcomes of the recruitment process, and , in consequence, to the overall performance of the firm. This evidence agrees, once more, with hypothesis 1. 2. 3 Hypothesis 2: The firms that prefer internal recruitment decisions over external recruitment will perform better than those who do not do itBefore carrying out this test, it seemed necessary to see whether firms prefer internal recruitment techniques over external ones. To do so, a frequency analysis was carried out, as illustrated in table 8. Frequency % Valid % Cumulative % Never 5 1,5 1,6 1,6 Very rarely 11 3,3 3,5 5,1 Rarely 19 5,7 6,1 11,2 Occasionally 62 18,6 19,8 31,0 Frequently 72 21,6 23,0 54,0 Very frequently 77 23,1 24,6 78,6 Always 67 20,1 21,4 100,0 Preference of internal recruitment over external recruitment Total 313 93,7 100,0 Table 8.Preference of internal recruitment over external recruitment The low values of the â€Å"very rarely† and â€Å"never† categories, and the fact that 69% of the firms prefer internal over external recruitment o n a â€Å"frequently† to â€Å"always† basis, demonstrate that it is internal European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (EMCIS) 2006, July 6-7 2006, Costa Blanca, Alicante, Spain J. A. Fernandez-Sanchez et al. Use of HRIS in recruitment process. The Spanish case. 6 recruitment what organizations favour. The reasons under this tendency can be found in the advantages of internal recruitment methods, as seen in the literature review.As for the consequences of this choice, table 9 provides the results of the relationship between the use of internal recruitment by the firms and the perceived degree of satisfaction with the outcomes of such a decision. None Of little satisfaction Moderately satisfactory Satisfactory Very satisfactory Addition of the last two Seldom 0 (0. 0%) 0 (0. 0%) 3 (30. 0%) 6 (60. 0%) 1 (10. 0%) 7 (70. 0%) Occasionally 0 (0,0%) 0 (0,0%) 12 (15,0%) 58 (72,5%) 10 (12,5%) 68 (85,0%) Sometimes 1 (0,8%) 0 (0,0%) 11 (8,7%) 97 (76,4%) 18 (14 ,2%) 115 (90,6%) Often 0 (0,0%) 0 (0,0%) 5 (6,9%) 44 (61,1%) 23 (31,9%) 67 (93,0%) Use of nternal recruitment Always 0 (0,0%) 0 (0,0%) 1 (5,0%) 11 (55,0%) 8 (40,0%) 19 (95,0%) Table 9. Degree of satisfaction with the outcomes of the recruitment process This contingency table indicates that those firms that use primarily internal recruitment processes seem more satisfied with their decision. Moreover, another Chi-squared test carried on these two variables rejects the null hypothesis of independence with a statistical significance of 0,013.Therefore, hypothesis 2 is confirmed, as has been argued by the work of other authors (namely Pfeffer, 1994 and 1998; Huselid, 1995; Delaney and Huselid, 1996; Delery and Doty, 1996) who show a positive relationship between the internal recruitment strategy and the performance of the firm. 3 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The main conclusion of this paper is the realization that the use of business HRIS is in a developing and retrieval. In spite of thi s, it is recognized the positive influence that these systems have in the recruiting process, which make us think that HRIS will gain a place in many organizations in the short and medium term.Regarding the commonest applications of HRIS, our findings indicate that a fairly large percentage of firms rely on these systems for at least one the stages of the recruitment process. Nevertheless, the presence of these applications is scarcer for the most complex and delayed in time tasks, such as decision making processes, because they require, in return, more complex HRIS. This conclusion is therefore reinforced by the findings expressed above, since it is the developing stage of HRIS what leads to this decompensate situation. It was also observed that two groups of organizations lead the HRIS mplementation trend: the parent companies, with regard to their subsidiaries, and the largest firms in terms of number of employees. This seems a logical finding because their more complex structure s may benefit more of the advantages of HRIS to increase the efficiency of their recruiting processes. Besides, HRIS are found to be preferred in combination with other HRM practices, instead of on their own. This reveals that human judgement is still the main criterion for making decisions in this area, albeit assessed or supported by the information provided by the HRIS.As for the main hypotheses tested in this research, internal recruitment is the favourite method for filling in vacant positions within the firms, which confirms the theoretical assumptions that asserted that, even though both internal and recruitment strategies are to be considered, the former is less costly and provides more advantages to the firms. Indeed, the evidence supports that a better performance is expected from the people internally recruited, which in turn will improve the overall business performance.European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (EMCIS) 2006, July 6-7 2006, Costa Blanca , Alicante, Spain J. A. Fernandez-Sanchez et al. Use of HRIS in recruitment process. The Spanish case. 7 The same can be stated about the synergies caused by the interaction between HRIS and internal recruitment. The business managers, overwhelming, agree in the positive effects that the advantages of the latter, and the better quality information provided by the former, have in the outcomes of the recruitment decisions. Finally, we would like to express our own impression on this topic.It is our belief that HRIS add competitive value to the firm as a whole and to the HRM department specifically. Despite this conviction, shared with many other academics of the field, we have reservations supporting that information systems may endow businesses with a sustainable competitive advantage on their own. Classic strategic information systems benefited from their being the first to arrive, but they soon became a commodity, even a compulsory asset in order to remain in the industry. Their pe rvasive condition may inhibit other firms from developing the strategic changes needed for succeeding in the foreseeable future.

Foundations of physiotherapy practice The WritePass Journal

Foundations of physiotherapy practice Introduction Foundations of physiotherapy practice IntroductionReferences:Related Introduction The aim of the essay was to explore COPD in both theory and practice in correlation with the three main body systems. The body systems investigated in detail where the respiratory, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and the neurological systems. Each system was researched for the effects it has on exercise intolerance, quality of life and the limitations that develop for a patient as a result of COPD. The role of pulmonary rehabilitation is inspected throughout the essay and its significance in the management of patients with COPD is expressed immensely within the context of the essay. There is an evidence based background to the exercise program used for the leaflet; it underpins the importance of using both endurance and strength training in order to improve some of the symptoms of COPD. The use of breathing exercises and techniques is also incorporated as it is a substantial part of the rehabilitation program. The role of the physiotherapist is fully established in the essay. The phy siotherapist is recognised for his/her role in each aspect in the management of the condition. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a disease defined by airflow limitation that cannot be fully reversed. COPD is a combination of emphysema, and chronic bronchitis. Chronic bronchitis is defined by excessive mucus secretions and a productive cough for a sustained period of time (more than two years). Emphysema is defined by destruction of the alveoli and smallest airways and secondary effects on lung elasticity, and other airways (Gupta and Brooks, 2006, p.180).The airflow obstruction is generally progressive in nature correlated with an abnormal inflammatory response of the lungs to gases. Despite the fact COPD affects the lungs; it also contributes to a substantial systemic reaction (Celli et al., 2004).although evidence shows that no change in lung function (FEV1) occurs, no matter how radical the treatment for the patient may be. Even tough loss of lung function is not regained; affective pulmonary rehabilitation helps slow the rate of decline (Bellamy and Brooker, 2004, p.12). COPD is important common respiratory disorders in primary care. Diagnosis of COPD is often delayed until patients present with severe symptoms. There are a high percentage of individuals that are undiagnosed in the population. Aside from patients being advised to stop smoking, it is important that pulmonary rehabilitation is part of the management of this condition and physiotherapist understand how to prescribe appropriate exercise training for patients with COPD (Gupta and Brooks, 2006, p.180).Patients with COPD are in the largest percentage of individuals referred for pulmonary rehabilitation. There is an increase in the evidence-based support for pulmonary rehabilitation in the management of patients with COPD (Nici et al., 2006). It addresses the numerous needs of the patient. It has many components which are highly effective in caring for the patient. Pulmonary rehabilitation incorporates the following: smoking cessation, education, exercise training, psychology i nterventions, physiotherapy, and nutrition. Exercise training is a vital component of pulmonary rehabilitation and is aimed at improving some of the restricting problems associated with the disease, such as dyspnoea and exercise tolerance despite the irreversible deformities in lung function (Tiep, 1997, p.1652). Management is essential in helping the patient have a better quality of life, as patients with COPD sink into an inactive and dependent state causing them to be at high risk of depression and anxiety. (Maurer et al., 2008). Depression and anxiety are addressed in the psychosocial component of the rehabilitation program (Nici, et al., 2006, p.1399). During the progression of COPD, all body systems in some way become affected (Tiep, 1997, p.1631).patients with COPD tend to stop or reduce their level of physical activity as exertion leads to the patient having unpleasant sensations. A vicious cycle can occur, with reductions in physical activities causing severe deconditioning, and more limitations in each system affected by the condition (Thomas, 2006, p. 62).The changes in each of these systems are coexisting factors that contribute to the exercise intolerance in patients with the disease. The respiratory system is affected greatly by COPD; it contributes to exercise intolerance in a number a ways. Ventilatory limitations occur for many reasons. An increase in both airway resistance and expiratory flow limitations causes a severe increase in the work of breathing. The elastic walls of the alveoli provide a certain amount of driving force behind the active process of exhalation (Rochester, 2003, p.61). Airflow obstruction leads t o impaired lung emptying and a higher end expiratory lung volume due to the loss in elasticity of the alveolar walls. This worsens during exercise leading to dynamic hyperinflation. Hyperinflation restricts the tidal volume response to excretion, flattens the diaphragm and the accessory muscles are then used to aid respiration, and   the muscle length-tension relationship of the respiratory muscles is altered forcing the muscles into a shortened position which puts them at a mechanical disadvantage. The degree of hyperinflation a patient is subject to is an important indicator of their exercise tolerance and dyspnea during exercise (Bellamy and Booker, 2004, p 23). Ventilatory   limitations to exercise causes interruption in gas exchange that emerges from the increase dead space to tidal volume ratio, ventilation-perfusion mismatch, and the reduction in diffusing capacity caused by the loss of alveolar/capillary connections. The increased dead space to tidal volume ratio in turn causes an increased ventilatory demand, for the same degree of bodily exertion (Rochester, 2003, p. 61). Other factors also further increase ventilatory demand these include, lactic acidosis and hypoxemia which directly or indirectly limit exercise tolerance (Nici et al., 2006, p. 1391). The musculoskeletal system is affected also, there is evidence showing that muscle dysfunction contributes to exercise intolerance in COPD.   The reduction in physical activities leads to damage in skeletal muscle function which in turn causes more symptoms at a less intensive level of work. Inactivity produces many structural and biomechanical changes in the skeletal muscle. Muscle strength is decreased in patients with COPD; peripheral muscle strength is to a much greater extent affected than upper limb muscles strength. The reduction in peripheral muscle strength may be directly linked with the fact there is a decrease in activity of the lower limbs in patients with COPD (Thomas, 2006, p. 63). There is also a reduction in endurance in both lower and upper limb muscles. Loss of lower limb muscle strength is equivalent to the reduction in muscle mass. With prolonged inactivity type 11a fibres (slow twitch fibres) convert to type 11b (fast twitch fibres), Reduction in fibre type an d decrease in cross-sectional of type 1 and 11a fibres is linked to muscle atrophy. Reduction in oxidative capacity and muscle atrophy is standard in patients with COPD. Deconditioning is an important factor in skeletal muscle dysfunction (Mador and Bozkanat, 2001). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease has an extensive impact on the cardiovascular system. The increased right ventricular afterload which is caused by the increased pulmonary vascular resistance resulting from the structural abnormalities in pulmonary circulation, and the hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction all contribute to the effects of COPD on the cardiovascular system. All of these processes lead to structural changes in the heart which include right ventricular dilatation and hypertrophy, to help conserve right ventricular output (Vonk-Noordegraaf, et al., 2005, p. 1901). The impaired ventricular filling is caused by hyperinflation and or other mechanical impairments. Cardiac output is relatively maintained in patients with COPD compared to normal individuals both at rest and during physical activities. Studies have proven that exercise training has no measurable impact on the changes in the cardiovascular system as the result of COPD. Like the irreversible effects COPD has on lung function, exercise training can slow it down but it can never be reversed back to normal no matter how extensive the treatment (Sietsema, 2001, p. 656-657). The neurological system is affected as a result of COPD. Neuropsychiatric disorders are common in patients with COPD, particularly depression and anxiety. The prevalence of depression is higher than anxiety it is over 20% higher than anxiety. They often go untreated in patients with COPD; the lack of adequate treatment leads to patients having a poor quality of life and is associated with premature death in COPD patients. The overall impact of depression and anxiety on COPD patients, their families, and society is important. Studies show that depression has been found to cause fatigue, dyspnoea, and disability (Maurer, et al., 2008, p. 43). Depression increases with hypoxemia, carbon dioxide levels, and dyspnea. Hypoxia in patients with COPD may be a major factor in the development of depression and anxiety due to lack of sufficient oxygen to the brain. However reduced physical capacity and negative self image may also be a causing factor in the development of the disease (Armstrong, 2010, p. 132). Pulmonary rehabilitation is the main intervention used to try and improve the systematic effects of COPD; its main concern is to control the symptoms and disease by including essential components such as the multidisciplinary team for support and guidance and the exercise training program for improvements in the patient’s physical limitations (Burton, et al., 1997, p. 879). The exercise training program of pulmonary rehabilitation must address the individual patient’s limitation to physical activity; these limitations may include ventilation limitations, gas exchange irregularities, and skeletal or respiratory muscle dysfunction. Exercise training aims to improve motivation for exercise, neuropsychiatric well being, decrease symptoms and improve quality of life. Moreover, the substantial improvement in oxidative capacity and efficiency of skeletal muscles has caused a decrease in alveolar ventilation for same degree of exertion. This can reduce dynamic hyperventilation, thus decreasing exertional dyspnoea (Aliverti and Macklem, 2001, p. 229). Pulmonary rehabilitation normally focuses on lower limb training, as loss of peripheral muscle strength in patients is high as loss of quadriceps muscle is reduced by up to 20-30% with patients in the moderate to severe phase of COPD. This is why exercise training is used to improve muscle strength. The dist ribution of muscle strength in patients with COPD is not equal between the lower and upper limb, there is evidence to prove the better preservation of the upper limb muscle strength (Thomas, 2006, p. 63). However upper limb exercises should be incorporated into the training program. Upper limb training results in an improvement in a patient’s ability to perform daily activities involving the upper body. Upper limb exercises also reduce dyspnoea and ventilatory requirements for arm elevation.   Evidence based guidelines recommend the use of upper limb exercise as part of the exercise program as it is safe and requires little equipment (Rochester, 2003, p. 70) There are two types of exercise training used in the rehabilitation program aerobic endurance and strength training. Aerobic endurance exercise training is the main component of pulmonary rehabilitation. Evidence from a number of randomized controlled trails supports the use of lower extremity exercise training, it has been found to significantly improve exercise tolerance, timed walking distance, sub maximal endurance time, and health related quality of life. Exercise training includes ground walking training, treadmill walking, cycle ergometery, and inspiratory muscle training (Gupta and Brooks, (2006), p. 182). Cycle ergometery training supervised by the physiotherapist to make sure the patient is performing the exercise at the right intensity, has been proven to improve exercise capacity in patients with COPD. Studies have shown that the combination of both inspiratory muscle training and cycle ergometery training has greater benefits for patients than just cycle ergometery alone. The addition of inspiratory muscle training enhances both inspiratory muscle endurance and strength, improves exerc ise capacity significantly more than just cycle ergometery training on its own (Wanke, et al., 1994, p. 2205-2211). Walking is an exercise prescribed to patients for endurance training, as it is a regular exercise that patients find easy and a large percentage of patients continue walking at home or after the rehabilitation programme. Patients are encouraged to walk to the point of breathlessness; this technique improves exercise tolerance in patients as they push themselves to get physically fit. The Physiotherapist gives support to patients, by reassuring them that breathlessness during walking doesn’t cause any damage to the lungs or heart it is beneficial in improving their quality of life (Bellamy and Booker, 2006, p. 115). Strength training is used in pulmonary rehabilitation for both the upper and lower body. In many studies patients rated their dyspnoea and fatigue the lowest after strength training. The strengthening exercises may include knee flexion and extension w hich works the quadriceps and hamstring muscles, also chest press which involves both pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi. Weights are used during each exercise and are altered increase or decrease the intensity. Strength training increases strength in all muscles that undergo the training this is due to muscle hypertrophy and improvements in neural recruitment patterns. Strength training has been proven by many studies to improve exercise performance and quality of life (Mador, et al., 2004, p. 2039-2041). Studies have supported evidence that endurance training has little effect on muscle weakness and muscle atrophy, two problems in patients with COPD and contributes to their exercise intolerance and poor quality of life. As a result most pulmonary rehabilitation programs combine strength and endurance training together as it is more beneficial to the patients. Studies have proven that the addition of strength training to endurance training produced a greater improvement in muscle mass and strength than endurance training alone (Ortega, et al., 2002, p. 670). Another study investigated the combination of both strength and endurance combined and found it was effective in reducing depression and anxiety. Moreover, there is evidence to confirm the beneficial effects of the three methods of exercise training (strength, endurance, and or combined) on the quality of life and level of dyspnoea in patients with COPD (Mador, et al., 2004, p. 2043). There is a debate as to whether high or low intensity training   in endurance and strength exercises should be used and to what beneficial effects either intensity will sustain in improving the symptoms of COPD. Low intensity training does result in improvements in symptoms, activities of daily living and health related quality of life, there is evidence to support the use of high intensity training producing greater physiologic training effects (Maltais, et al., 1997, p. 555-561). Training intensity that exceeds 60% of the peak exercise capacity is enough to cause some physiologic effects, even though higher percentages have been tolerated and are more beneficial. The effects of cycle ergometery training at high intensity work load were compared to low intensity work load in 19 patients with moderate to severe COPD. The group following the cycle ergometery at the high intensity work rate had a greater reduction in lactate production and ventilation requirements, although the low i ntensity group had a similar result but not as much significant gains in aerobic fitness (Rochester, 2003, p. 67-68). Therefore using high or low intensity training has beneficial effects, high intensity exercise training is more advantageous producing physiologic changes in patients that are capable to reach that level, low intensity exercise training is more tailored to the health benefits of the general population and for patients who are in a more fragile state (Calverley, et al., 2003, p. 468-470). Aside from endurance and strength training the pulmonary rehabilitation program has breathing exercises and techniques that are incorporated into the program. The role of the physiotherapist in the management of COPD is established especially in breathing exercises and techniques. Physiotherapists play a crucial role in the exercise, assessment and education aspects of the pulmonary rehabilitation program they are a valuable part of the multidisciplinary team. They are there to provide specialist advice and support for the patient, especially during an exacerbation, when patients have trouble clearing their chest secretions, and to help control any anxiety or panic attacks they may lead to hyperventilation. When physiotherapist helps patients clear chest secretions it often involves teaching the patient about the active cycle of breathing technique (ACBT) using forced expiration to enhance chest clearance. Physiotherapists also use techniques to reduce the work of breathing, which involves the use of breathing retraining or relaxed breathing control. Diaphragmatic breathing and pursed lip breathing are two examples of breathing retraining; these are of benefit to manage panic attacks and breathlessness. Physiotherapists also teach a patient varies positioning techniques to help with dyspnoea. They have a major role in pulmonary rehabilitation programmes, along with respiratory management they provide advice and support for patients with mobility problems (Barnett, (2006), p. 174). Physiotherapists are involved in educating and supporting patients in breathing retraining. The main goals of using diaphragmatic breathing and pursed lip breathing are to relieve breathlessness and encourage relaxation (Mikelsons, 2008, p. 3). Pursed lip breathing is a technique used where exhalation is accomplished through resistance created by narrowing (pursing) of the lips; it is often naturally taken up by COPD patients. Studies have shown that pursed lip breathing can have a positive effect on dyspnoea when performed by patients during exercise. Patients who experience reduction in dyspnoea due to pursed lip breathing also had reductions in end expiratory lung volume and increase supply in inspiratory muscle pressure-generating capacity. During breathing at rest and exercise pursed lip breathing contributed to a slower deeper breathing pattern in patients, and is a useful technique to apply when an onset of breathlessness comes upon a patient (Spahija, et al., 2005, p. 640-648 ). Diaphragmatic breathing is used as another technique to help with dyspnoea and dynamic hyperinflation. In diaphragmatic breathing physiotherapists teach patients to synchronize inspiration with abdominal expansion as they breathe slowly and deeply. On the exhalation the diaphragm is pushed up by the abdominal muscles which create a better length tension relationship and a better curved posture. This technique increases the capable force of the diaphragm as an inspiratory muscle. Diaphragmatic breathing has a significant increase in tidal volume and a major reduction in respiratory frequency which caused an increase in minute ventilation. In hypercapnic patients with COPD, diaphragmatic breathing helps with hyperinflation in these patients. However studies have shown that severely hyperinflated  Ã‚   patients are incapable of performing this breathing technique (Gigliotti, et al., 2003, p. 198). Secretion clearance is an important technique used for acute exacerbation management . Acute exacerbations are common in patients with COPD; they are associated with a poor quality of life and are a burden to both family and caregivers. Symptoms include dyspnea, purulent sputum, and an increase in sputum volume. Patient’s awareness of the symptoms of exacerbations and early intervention reduces the risk of hospitalization and leads to a better quality. Physiotherapists are important in providing such interventions to help patients with sputum clearance. Physiotherapeutic techniques used to help with sputum clearance include active cycle of breathing techniques (ACBT), percussions, vibrations, and shaking. ACBT consists of breathing control, lower thoracic expansion exercises and forced expiratory technique. ACBT aids bronchial clearance by improving mucociliary clearance while also decreasing adverse effects such as hypoxia and increased airflow obstruction. Compared to percussion, vibrations, and shaking ACBT has been proven to be the most effective techniqu e in chest clearance with over 80% of physiotherapists the UK using it always or often when treating patients with COPD. Studies have shown that ACBT helps improve oxygenation, assists in sputum clearance, reduces anxiety, and enhances health related quality of life (Yohannes and Connolly, 2007, p 110-113). Many patients with COPD adopt a forward leaning position to help with the feeling of breathlessness, this is a useful technique which physiotherapist teach patients to self manage dyspnoea, during the stable phase of COPD and when they get an acute exacerbation. There is evidence to reinforce the use of the forward leaning position to improve breathlessness and decrease work of breathing. This position promotes diaphragmatic function by allowing the shortened diaphragm to be lengthened by the movement of the abdominal content away from the diaphragm thus enhancing the length tension relationship. This position can be altered to suit individual, it can be used in everyday life such as standing leaning against a wall, window sill or shopping trolley. These functional positions enable patients to get out and improve both their breathlessness and quality of life (Mikelsons, 2008, p. 3). Studies support the use of breathing retraining, chest physiotherapy and exercise training as it contr ibutes to improvements in dyspnoea, functional exercise capacity, and quality of life in COPD patients (Guell, et al., 2000, p. 978). In conclusion, the importance of COPD as a disease is relatively high as it has been stated to be in the top four leading cause of death and disability in the world (Gupta and Brooks, 2006, p. 187). The considerable effects COPD has on the respiratory system are discussed showing the limiting effects it has on both ventilation and gas exchange all contribute to the exercise intolerance in patients. The musculoskeletal system is greatly hindered by the effects COPD has on the structural and biomechanical aspects causing limitations in the ability to exercise. COPD leads to cardiovascular problems which progressively get worse if patients aren’t introduced to the exercise training program to help slow down the deterioration. Anxiety and depression goes undiagnosed in a lot of patients with COPD but has been shown to contribute to both exercise intolerance and poor quality of life in patients. The intervention of the pulmonary rehabilitation program has been proven to help increa se exercise capacity, decrease dyspnoea and improve health related quality of life. The support and advice from the physiotherapist in the exercise training program, breathing exercises and techniques is a key element to the success of the pulmonary rehabilitation program. In light of all the advantages of the rehabilitation program there is still the unsubstantial effect it has on lung function in patients with COPD. References: Aliverti, A. and Macklem, P. (2001) How and Why Exercise Is Impaired in COPD. Respiration, 68 (3), pp. 229-239. Armstrong, C. (2010) Handbook of Medical Neuropsychology: Application of Cognitive Neuroscience. United States of America: Springer Science and Business Media. Barnett, M. (2006) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in Primary Care. United Kingdom: Whurr Publishers Limited. Bellamy, D. and Booker, R. (2006) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in Primary Care. 3rd ed. United Kingdom: Class Publishing Ltd. Burton, G. et al., (1997) Respiratory Care A Guide to Clinical Practice. 4th ed. United States of America: Lippincott-Raven Publishers. Calverley, P. M. A. et al., (2003) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Arnold. Giggliotti, F. et al., (2003) Breathing retraining and exercise conditioning in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): a physiological approach. Respiratory Medicine, 97 (3), pp. 197-204. Guell, R. et al., (2000) Long-term Effects of Outpatient Rehabilitation of COPD. Chest journals, 117 (4), pp. 976-983. Gupta, R. and Brooks, D. (2008) Aerobic Exercise for Individuals with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Physiotherapy Canada, 58 (3), pp. 179-186. Mador, J. and Bozkanat, E. (2001) Skeletal muscle dysfunction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respiratory research, 2 (4), pp.216-224. Mador, J. et al., (2004) Endurance and Strength Training in Patients with COPD. Chest journals, 125 (6), pp. 2036-2045. Maltais, F. et al., (1997) Intensity of training and physiological adaptation in patients chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. America journal of critical care medicine, 155, pp. 555-561. Mikelsons, C. (2008) The role of physiotherapy in the management of COPD. Respiratory Medicine, 4 (1), pp. 2-7. Nici, L. et al., (2006) American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society Statement on Pulmonary Rehabilitation. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 173 (12), pp. 1390-1413. Ortega, F. et al., (2002) Comparison of Effects of Strength and Endurance Training in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 166 (5), pp. 669-674. Rochester, C. (2003) Exercise training in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 40 (5), pp. 59-80. Sietsema, K. (2001) Cardiovascular limitations in chronic pulmonary disease. Medicine science in sports exercise, 33 (7), pp. 656-661. Spahija, J. et al., (2005) Effects of Imposed Pursed-Lips Breathing on Respiratory Mechanics and Dyspnea at Rest and During Exercise in COPD. Chest journals, 128 (2), pp. 640-650. Thomas, A. J. (2006) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: The contribution of skeletal muscle dysfunction to exercise intolerance. Physical therapy reviews, 11 (1), pp. 62-66. Tiep, B. (1997) Disease Management of COPD with Pulmonary Rehabilitation. Chest journals, 112 (6), pp. 1630-1656. Vonk-Noordegraaf, A. et al., (2005) Early Changes of Cardiac Structure and function in COPD Patients with Mild Hypoxemia. Chest journals, 127 (6), pp. 1898-1903. Wanke, T. et al., (1994) Effects of combined inspiratory muscle and cycle ergometer training on exercise performance in patients with COPD. European Respiratory Journal, 7 (12), pp. 2205-2211. Yohannes, A. Connolly, M. (2007) A national survey: percussion, vibration, shaking and active cycle of breathing techniques used in patients with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Physiotherapy, 93 (2), pp. 110-113.

being a teenage parent essays

being a teenage parent essays Raising a child isn't an easy thing to do. Raising a child while still in your teens is even harder. Raising a child, starting your career, finding yourself and getting an education are some of the hardest things most people will ever achieve in their lifetime. Can you begin to imagine going through all of these at the same time? Children need to be fed, bathed and cared for almost full time, do these people get the support they need? For many teenage girls, becoming pregnant can mean a withdrawal of support when it is most needed. Teenagers when they become pregnant can suffer from a lack of support from the school and schoolteachers, the general public and even friends and family. Many find themselves with ultimatum, have an abortion or move out. There is also the common stereotype that teenage parents are missing out on the best years of their lives. Many, while finding their experiences tough and challenging, have no regrets and are happy with where they are, in the long term. They still of course wish, that things could have been easier, so they could have enjoyed being a parent and having first born even more, maybe with a husband and without all the added stress. The social consequences are the last thing on a mothers mind. Teenage parents deal with a lot of stereotyping both from, including strangers and friends. Many people don't wish to acknowledge the fact that it only takes once to get pregnant, which may very well be the case for the pregnant teenager. Yet many people will look at her as lowly, assuming she got pregnant on purpose and had slept around often. Her parenting skills are doubted, even if she follows the most popular of the parenting experts. Relationships are also strained in almost all areas of a teenage parents life. In many cases the father leaves or is unwilling to accept responsibility in the first place and they are left to be a single, teenage parent. Council housing is rarely available and if...

A look at the key considerations in determinate vs. indeterminate ruling and overcrowded state and federal prisons in America

A look at the key considerations in determinate vs. indeterminate ruling and overcrowded state and federal prisons in America Determinate Sentencing versus Indeterminate Sentencing and Overcrowding The recent switch back to determinate sentencing in the past thirty years has ultimately overcrowded America’s federal and state prison systems. Despite a substantial decline in crime rates since 1991, the number of people being imprisoned increased continuously until 2011 and the imprisonment rate until 2007. Prisons and jails in 1991 held 1,219,014 inmates. The rate was 481 per 100,000 population. By 2008, the number of inmates had almost doubled to 2,308,390. Both the numbers of people admitted to federal and state prisons, and held in them, substantially increased in 2013. (Tonry, 1997.) Determinate sentencing has a specific number of years, no minimum or maximum. Whilst determinate sentencing was created to promote equality of sentencing, it does not always do so. Determinate sentencing and truth-in- sentencing have very limited discretionary/parole release. This laws are based on the justice model introduced by David Fogul and the concept of â€Å"just deserts,† offered by Andrew von Hirsh. These concepts are based on the similar approach that punishment is to be commensurate with the seriousness of the crime. (book) However, these â€Å"tough on crime† sentencing laws are what caused the current prison overcrowding dilemma in our nation. (Abadinsky, 2015.) One goal of determinate sentencing is to rid the system of parole boards. However, parole and parole boards have proven to be helpful to the system. Parole release has been used for upholding prison discipline and decreasing prison overcrowding for years. As I stated before, parole stemmed from pardons issues by governors. This tactic was used when prisons became overcrowded before parole boards were created. During the period of indeterminate sentencing, parole agencies served as a â€Å"safety valve† for crowded prisons. When Texas prisons were overcrowded in the 1980s, Texas increased parole release. By 1983, roughly forty percent of inmates were released on parole after their first hearing. (Abadinsky, 2015) Another pressing issue with determinate sentencing is prosecutorial discretion. The Sentencing Reform Act of 1984 abolished indeterminate sentencing and was intended to reduce sentence disparity and rid the system of parole release, but the discretion lost by judges was gained by prosecutors which resulted in longer prison terms and overcrowded prisons. Ronald Wright stated in his article Managing Prison Growth in North Carolina through Structured Sentencing, that â€Å"Legislativley mandated determinate sentencing has not proved to be a workable alternative to the traditional indeterminate system.† (Abadinksy,2015.) Sentencing disparity has been another rising concern with the abolishment of parole boards and determinate sentencing. In the determinate sentencing scheme, the role of the parole board to decrease sentence disparity is ignored. Since one of the main functions of the parole board is to review the sentences of all state prisoners, it can act as a mediating factor. The state of Nebraska is a prime example. The parole board there functions as an â€Å"equalizer,† mediating between ninety-three prosecuting offices and multiple jurisdictions. (Abadinsky, 2015.) Prisons are not constructed to house every offender ever given a prison sentence. Prison is meant to work like a circulation system. Unfortunately, the circulation system has come to halt. Politics have had an influence on prison sentence policy change and ultimately, overcrowded prisons. One theory suggests that high rates of incarceration in the United States and the overcrowding of U.S. prisons and jails result from decisions by policy makers to increase the use of prison sentences as well as the severity(Travis, Western, Redburn, 2014). In 1982, when President Reagan declared the war on drugs, law enforcement, prosecutors, and judges alike began to treat drug offenses more seriously and this led to an increase in incarceration. (Javitze, 2009.) Politicians who preach â€Å"tough on crime† statutes are to blame for prison overcrowding as well. â€Å"Clearly, parole was an easy target for those looking for political opportunities,† notes Barbara Krauth, and â€Å" emotional appeal of an attack on the system that released criminals to the streets may have benefited some political careers more than if actually addressed any of the complex problems of criminal justice.† (Abadinksy, 2015.) Some have described sentencing reform as a â€Å"political football.† (Stansky, 1996.) Because of our nation’s democratic system of frequent legislative elections, widely dispersed governmental powers, and election of judges and prosecutors, law makers tend to be susceptible to public opinions about crime and can become vulnerable to pressures from the public and political opponents to quickly enact tough legislation (Javitze, 2009). Indeterminate sentencing schemes are a much better alternative than determinate sentencing. Indeterminate sentencing usually involves a minimum and maximum, with the actual release determined by a parole board or the result of the accumulation of good time. This type of sentencing was first introduced in 1840 when Alexander Maconochie set out a philosophy of punishment based on reforming the individual criminal; the criminal was to be punished for the past and trained for the future. (Abadinsky, 2015.) In contrast to determinate sentencing, indeterminate sentencing is less likely either to permit premature release or to allow prolonged confinement beyond that needed to ensure the safety of society. (Slobogin, 2011). Indeterminate sentencing focuses on a rehabilitative and reformative approach rather than a â€Å"just deserts† approach. Rehabilitative correctional programs cost more than a prison system that merely aims at unsparing punishment, but benefit society and the prisoners themselves more in the long run. Indeterminate sentencing requires regular evaluations and hearings, treatment teams, and means of rehabilitation in the community in addition to places of confinement. However, community programs are less expensive than institutions once they are established, and are better at reducing recidivism, thus better at reducing the overcrowded prison population (Slobogin, 2011.) Indeterminate sentencing serves two important purposes: one being that indeterminate sentences and parole help to prepare prisoners for the outside world. â€Å"In the absence of discretionary release by a parole board, there is little, if any, pressure on prisoners to prepare for post release.† (Abadinsky, 2015.). The second being that this type of sentencing scheme protects the public from violent, habitual offenders while helping the nonviolent offenders gain opportunity in life. (Gault, 1921.) Another benefit of indeterminate sentences and parole boards is that distinctions can be made between inmates deserving early release and those who do not. Assessments can be made to determine which inmates should be released before the expiration of their sentence and which inmates should be denied release. This type of discretion is allocated to parole boards, who evaluate inmates carefully and decide who stays and who goes. Parole boards stem from the power of governors to pardon selected criminals. In states who use determinate sentencing, a similar release function is carried out by prison officials using good time. Although, prison officials do not have the information, time, or expertise to make accurate release decisions. Indeterminate sentencing and parole allows for parole boards to make discretionary decisions based on their knowledge of the offenders, and also provides an incentive for prisoners to develop personals goals and become motivated to be law-abiding citizens. (Abadinsky, 2015.) In conclusion, overcrowded prisons can be attributed to the use of determinate sentencing over indeterminate sentencing. Indeterminate sentencing offer the option of early release at the discretion of a parole board. While critics of indeterminate sentencing and parole boards claim that this discretionary decision should be left up to judges, parole boards are much better equipped to properly handle the release of offenders. Parole boards also provide support for inmates to prepare them for life on the outside. Without parole boards and a variety of other similar programs, there is little pressure on inmates to prepare for post-release life. This situation ultimately leads to higher recidivism rates, and finally, overcrowded prisons.

Functions of a public nature under a provision of the Human Rights Act Case Study

Functions of a public nature under a provision of the Human Rights Act of 1998 - Case Study Example Those courts or judicial bodies shall act accordingly when an individual applies for that relief or remedy. Thus, if one perceives that any government authority exercises its powers illegally, he (the aggrieved party) may file or apply to the Administrative Court for judicial review. This means that the petitioner or applicant will be asking the Administrative Court to quash or set aside the allegedly illegal act or order or decision of the challenged government authority.In one case law, the grounds for judicial review were summarized into illegality, irrationality or unreasonableness, and procedural impropriety.1 Illegality and irrationality are founded on substantive considerations as both relate to the principles and theories applied in asking for the review of the act, order or decision of the respondent government authority. Procedural impropriety, on the other hand, points to the serious flaws of the procedures followed by the government authority in doing the act or in issuin g the order or in rendering the decision.Ordinarily, judicial review does not entangle so much in difficulty for its application and interpretation in cases on the subject of human rights. Thus, if an administrative office under the education ministry issues a ruling, for instance, that a certain public high school will accept only straight male boys for education grants, that ruling will be subject to judicial review if the prospective gay students apply for the same on the possible contention of discrimination which will have repercussion on their human rights even under common law. With the passing of the Human Rights Act of 1998 and the interpretation of basic rights and freedoms coverage in conjunction with the European Convention on Human Rights, there may be debates on the issues. Before the said law, no written law in the United Kingdom enumerated basic human rights and fundamental freedoms. These key human concerns were embodied in the general common law. Then came the Convention where provisions on basic human rights and fundamental freedoms are clearly stipulated. In view of all these, arguments on the issue of reconciling the Human Rights Act and the Convention have abounded. For instance, in the case of Ghaidan v. Godin-Mendoza2, the Human Rights Act was put on the test. Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza was about gays who lived together as couples. Under the applicable law on rental succession, gays who treat each other as conjugal partners are not considered as husband and wife. Upon judicial review, Article 14 of the Convention was invoked and the court found that the claim against discrimination on the basis of sex or other gender orientation for that matter was tenable. The calisthenics all about the variances will lead to resolve the perception that the convention has become inferior to the Human Rights Act. It is at this point that the importance of judicial review in administrative law becomes apparent. The first part of Section 3 of the Human Rights Act says that primary and subordinate legislations must be construed such that local laws are compatible with the rights listed in the Convention. The statutory provision has its rationale. As a signatory to the treaty, the UK must abide by the rules of the Convention. Hence, UK statutes are interpreted in a way that there is agreement with the Convention. The final portion of Section 3 is the meat of the problem. It states that it does not affect the validity and continuing operation of the incompatible primary law. Does this affect the strength of the Convention' The answer is in the negative. Current primary and subo

The Body in Health, Lifestyle or Sporting Magazines Essay

The Body in Health, Lifestyle or Sporting Magazines - Essay Example The myth about beauty will be broken by revealing the real benefits media enjoy by impacting the values of women. The paper also focuses on identifying ways through which this insecurity can be prevented or remedied. Changing standards of feminine beauty with time The portrayal of women as a marketing object has a long history in media but the trend of extremely thin models is not very old. Earlier, the idea of female beauty was closely linked to her realistically voluptuous body. In the early 20th century, the culture of fashion underwent a shift from the chubby female figure to a thinner fragile look. However, this thinner new female ideal was not really misleading and made women think about taking care of their health. This description of a female figure initially created a healthy trend in common people as they started to incorporate sports activities in their free time to make their bodies healthier and more active. During the mid 20th century, ideal female body image became thi nner (someone like Marilyn Monroe who was a size 14 was considerably overweight as compared with today’s standards). After initial acceptance of this idea, the trend went on following the notion, â€Å"the thinner the better†. Unfortunately, with the passage of time, these underweight models became the representatives of female beauty, which is still the case today. However, with the development of digital imaging techniques, the beauty ideal presented today to young women is more unrealistic and unattainable than ever before. The recent hype for promoting the thin beauty is increasing towards unattainable thin figures, most of the time being artificially â€Å"perfect† which is facilitated by digital tools and computer. In this way, the media can be held responsible for creating stereotyped notions of beauty, being linked with skinny, ultra-slim and very female bodies (Arya, 2009). The myth of beauty Being surrounded by so many media with so many skinny women r aises the question of what actually can be called an ideal or perfect female figure. The description of beauty described by the media seems to be quite similar to a Barbie doll:   a thin and tall figure, always smiling and ready to be played with. The ideal body shape broadcasted by media is actually of the skeletal and underweight woman. The representation of skinny women is supported by media to such an extent that it became the standard for the ideal body for Miss American contests, where most of the contestants weigh much less than 15% of their expected body weight and therefore giving a clear-cut message that it’s ok to be underweight but still you can look pretty (University of California, 2007).

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Rehabilitation - Essay Example e can have various effects.   I note that during the earlier stages of my disease that I had mild and uncontrollable muscular movements, stumbling, clumsiness, decreased concentration, decreased short-term memory, depression, and changes in mood (NHS, 2012).   During this time, I often felt confused and could not understand what was happening to me and why.   The diagnosis of my disease later helped me understand what I was going through (NHS, 2012).   As the disease advanced, I found it more difficult to walk, and sometimes had trouble sitting and standing on my own.   I also manifested involuntary movements at times.   I had trouble speaking clearly, and sometimes had difficulties in swallowing (NHS, 2012).   I also lost weight.   I also manifested emotional changes including mood changes, depression, and frustration.   My mood changes also caused a loss of motivation and drive, often causing me to withdraw from normal activities (NHS, 2012).   This disease has caused strain with my family members.   For my family, my disease caused much strain and stress.   Financial burden was one of these issues caused by my disease on my family.   It also made them embarrassed to have a family member suffering from the disease (Knowles, 2006).   My children felt misunderstood and did not socialize well with other children because of the embarrassment they felt.   My children also felt that they were constantly in a stressed household and often had to deal with arguments with my wife and with each other (Knowles, 2006).   My children’s studies were also affected due to the stress they had to deal with.   At times, they also had to deal with abuse, mostly emotional abuse from me (Knowles, 2006).   I would sometimes lash out at them and utter angry and hurting words which caused them much pain and frustration. My family also has a history of this disease, with my father and grandfather having died both in the early 40s due to the ravages of this disease. The fact that they

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Hypertension (high blood pressure) - Essay Example Blood pressure below 120/80 mm Hg is considered as a normal blood pressure. But, some medical experts claim 115/75 mm Hg as a more stable blood pressure level (Luehr et al., 2012, p. 15). Prehypertension, stage 1 hypertension, and stage 2 hypertension are three major hypertension stages. Prehypertension consists of a systolic pressure in the range of 120 to 139 mm Hg or a diastolic pressure in the range of 80 to 89 mm Hg. Stage 1 hypertension and stage 2 hypertension have a systolic pressure in the range of 140 to 159 mm Hg and 160 mm Hg or greater respectively or a diastolic pressure in the range of 90 to 99 mm Hg and 100 mm Hg or greater respectively (Luehr et al., 2012, p. 15). It is not possible to diagnose hypertension on the basis of one blood pressure reading as blood pressure varies several times in a day depending on activities, surroundings, age, and gender. Hence, doctors keep the patient on an observation and check the blood pressure at intervals for several times to diagnose it. Patients are required to avoid smoking, physical exercise, or drinking energetic beverages (especially with caffeine) for at least 30-40 minutes before the blood pressure readings (Simon & Zieve, 2013). As often during the clinical testing, patients are in stress, doctors ask the patients to measure their blood pressure at home too. Usually, doctors recommend the use of specific ambulatory monitoring equipment that measures blood pressure about every 20-30 minutes during the 24-hours period and gives appropriate readings to help the doctors to diagnose the hypertension in patients (Simon & Zieve, 2013). Based on the clinical and home readings of blood pressure at several times a day for period of time and medical history of patient, doctors diagnose the hypertension condition in the patient (Simon & Zieve, 2013). In order to formally diagnose the hypertension, there are various tests which are required to perform.

Business Law Phase 2 DB Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business Law Phase 2 DB - Essay Example (b) Buyer has sole control of the defense and all related settlement negotiations; and (c) Buyer provides Seller with the assistance, information and authority necessary to perform Buyer’s obligations under this section. Buyer shall have no liability of any claim of infringement based on use of Equipment altered by the Buyer. 1. Identification of Parties involved: The beginning of the contract should always be with names of the parties signing the contract. In case of involvement of companies or organizations, the name of the company should be followed by the representatives. Contact information will be an additional advantage, if included. 3. Limitations of the Contract: The details of the expiry date, if any, should be mentioned i.e. how and when will the particular contract end? In case of renewals, quote the date and time for contract renewal. 4. Monetary Obligations: Clearly mention all the monetary obligations, costs involved etc of the contract. Also mention the details of taxes involved, their calculations and the person responsible for covering

Tourism and Indigenous People Essay Example for Free

Tourism and Indigenous People Essay 1. 0 AN INTRODUCTION According to the United Nations definition of indigenous people, they are â€Å"descendants of those who inhabited a country or a geographical region at the time when people of different cultures or ethnic origins arrived† (United Nations, 2011a). It is estimated that there are about 370 million indigenous people around the globe in over 70 different countries. They keep their own political, social, economic and cultural qualities and also their unique traditions which separate them from other major societies in which they live (United Nations, 2011a). Nowadays, when tourists interact with indigenous cultures it is seen to be restricted to a master/servant encounter and sometimes is seen as an unoriginal representation of these people? s long-established and cultural lifestyles (Hinch Butler, 1996). Hinch Butler (1996) go on to say that â€Å"factors within the external environment may have particularly strong influences upon the outcome of indigenous tourism†. These influences which they mentioned included the economy, culture, physical environment, socialdemographics and politics (Hinch Butler, 1996, page 12). The economic considerations to take into account are very important for tourism – the development of the economy through the tourism industry has actually been implemented as an approach to promoting economic independence for indigenous people (Hinch Butler, 1996). It is known that for over the past two decades tourism impacts have been defined under three main headings – economic, environmental and socio-cultural. Within the context of tourism, this report will deal with indigenous people through issues they come to deal with during their everyday lives. From positive impacts which can come in the form of monetary benefits for them through tourism activities and an increased sense of pride for their culture, to more pressing issues, which include exploitation of their traditional knowledge and detrimental effects on their homelands by tourism. Most importantly and of utmost significance in our world today is the manipulation of indigenous people? Rights as inhabitants and I felt a strong need to discuss particular topics which are very relevant today in society and which pose great problems for the future of indigenous people. I separated the topics under 3 classic terms – economic, environmental and socio-cultural. Firstly, I will talk about tourisms economic impact on indigenous people, where I based my research on three short case study examples of tourism and indigenous communities from Mexico, Southern Belize and Namibia. 1 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 2. 0 ECONOMIC ISSUES â€Å"In many developing, or so-called third world countries, the tourism industry has become an economic activity – one that impinges upon social, economic, cultural and environmental structures† (Amador-Greathouse, 2005, p709). The tourism industry, in some form or another, brings about both positive and negative economic impacts for a multitude of people. Particularly in rural areas, the diversification which is created by tourism helps communities that are perhaps dependent on only one industry and in turn, they can create additional income through working in tourism (Kreag, 2001). 2. 1 Importance of the Economy for Indigenous People The main strength that impels the tourism industry is income and literally all of the written matter which deals with these economic impacts looks at foreign income and also the generation of jobs (Bauer, 2008). An example by Hundt, A. (1996) in Jamaica showed that tourism development in the area actually did reap some rewards in the form of increased wealth and an improvement in the position of people? s health, but it also recognized that the money which was generated from tourism was not utilised in the appropriate way and did not improve the health of the people who needed it more than others. On the other hand, Manley (1974) says, when speaking of tourism in Jamaica, that: â€Å"Jamaica cannot afford to go without tourism. No industry grows as quickly in today’s world, nor is as capable of rapid local expansion† (page 101). He went on to say that tourism is one of the most â€Å"labour intensive industries† left to the modern world and that it has a very agreeable multiplier effect when planned successfully (Manley, 1974). According to the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody: National Report (1991) the potential for tourism development is strong in certain parts of Australia. In rural areas it is one of a few growth sections for the economy. However, tourism also brings its quandaries regarding indigenous people, in this case, of aboriginal descent. There are two sides to the coin as at one side we have one of the very few ways that aboriginal people have in taking positive action in creating income for themselves through tourism, but tourism can also bring unwanted invasion of people?s community spirit and lifestyle and bringing with that little benefit to the people (Commonwealth of Australia, 1991). 2 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 Altman Finlayson (2003) examined how employment as a form of economic income in the tourism industry (and tourism-related industries) needs people with good communicational attributes and people who can read and write, as well as embracing different cultures. This idea can be discouraging for some people of indigenous ethnic groups. They went on to say how these issues aforementioned result in a boundary being set around employment opportunity for (in this case) Aboriginal employees and can restrict their involvement within the other service industries to un-skilled or semi-skilled work (Altman Finlayson, 2003). Also mentioned was the fact that â€Å"they (aborigines) prefer indirect economic participation† and â€Å"participation in hospitality and other tourism-related services also demands direct and intensive social interaction with tourists which many aboriginal people are unwilling or unable to undertake† (Altman Finlayson, 2003, p79). 2. 2 Cuetzalan, Mexico: a positive outcome In the case of Cuetzalan, a county in Mexico and country full of various indigenous ethnic groups, tourism has had a positive economic impact – by generating a fresh and busy economic place it has brought forth a totally new understanding in people and has shown the way for a transformation in the likes of shared relations between different societies native to the area (Amador-Greathouse, 2005, pp709-10). One of the top reasons why tourists go to Mexico is to gain insight into the so-called undamaged and unspoiled way of life that Mexicans have in their native setting. The tourists almost expect the indigenous people to put on a show for them in their own style of living. This is what the natives believe the tourist wants to experience in this way and the tourist then seeks out a new awareness of what this indigenous way of life really is (AmadorGreathouse, 2005, pp709-10). 3 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 2. 3 Tourism in a Mayan Village, Southern Belize: Do it at Local Level One case study which sheds lights on the economic impact of tourism is the â€Å"Maya Village Indigenous Experience† in 1990. This programme was a way in which the local Mayan villagers in Southern Belize could take part in a plan which would see them benefit economically from tourism to their area by doing it all at local level, but without compromising their way of life and culture (Steinberg, 1994). In the past the Mayan people had been seen as only useful for strenuous labour and agricultural work, without any economic hopes for them. Their view on tourism was that it would benefit them by concentrating on natural assets that they held. The aim was to invite tourists to stay in the local people? s homes, with a fee and with the profits shared fairly between all (Steinberg, 1994). The main outcome was that now the Mayans believe that tourism was an intricate part in the wheel of economic development for their country and has given them hope that the economic benefits from tourism can help in moving their line of work solely from income through agriculture to other forms of income. Of course, there are negative impacts to be seen also. The idea that tourism would bring immediate money to the people was quickly shattered; the native craftspeople left their jobs because craftwork was not being sold to tourists (due to small numbers arriving) and arguments started between members of different neighbouring villages as they all vied to be in the lead as regards the creation of new plans for tourism development (Steinberg, 1994). These impacts were perhaps inevitable, but the Mayans had a strong community spirit in the start-up phase and this did benefit them. Next we move on to Caprivi in Namibia, where both positive and negatives impacts were experienced. 4 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 2. 4 Caprivi, Namibia: Complement vs. Conflict Another economic impact of tourism is seen in the livelihoods of rural people around the world. It is a matter of sustaining their livelihoods through proper management of tourism in their area. One such case study details positive and negative economic impacts on a Namibian Community (Ashley, 2000). Tourism in the native community of Caprivi is seen as a rural activity, one which is seen as an addition and not as a substitute. A key theme in the study showed that not only did tourism complement other activities, but it also conflicted with them. It strengthened individual household production and increased skills. Sometimes if people get jobs in tourism, they believe it will increase their income over a short space of time, but in fact this is not the reality of it and this is also to the detriment of their traditional way of life. In Caprivi, Namibia, the natives believe that tourism is much easier to link in with their current livelihoods, e. g. agriculture, craft-making, etc These particular tourism jobs are nearer to home, essentially meaning, that if they are farmers working on the land, they can remain farmers working on the land, as well as being involved in tourism (Ashley, 2000). As we have seen the complementative side of tourism for the Caprivians, we will now look to the other side. The conflicting side of these economic tourism impacts come in several ways. 1. Staple activities for income generation are through livestock husbandry and crop production. Tourists have now had the blame put on them for disturbing the wildlife, especially elephants and lions, which in turn, damage water points and kill livestock when the animals aggressively move closer to farms. 2. Grazing lands are lost for farmers whose main income is through livestock-keeping. All of the natural resources are reduced as so much land is set aside for wildlife and for the benefit of tourists. Poorer people dependent on harvesting a variety of natural resources, such as plant medicines, food, weaving materials and items made for selling find that they have little access to these resources, therefore, directly affecting their income (Ashley and LaFranchi, 1997). 3. Time-conflicting: Agriculture and the income generated from this have been affected as community leaders or people who want to set up a tourism enterprise spend a great deal of time working on this. For example, community leaders in Caprivi would need to spend on 5 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 average about 360-720 days between themselves, park authorities and the public sector to establish a lodge in Mudumo National Park (Ashley and LaFranchi, 1997). What we see from the case studies above, and from the general outcome of economic activity from tourism in these areas, there have been both positives and negatives. Perhaps, for the most part, they might always remain hand in hand to some extent, but hopefully in the future with better resources and tourism management in indigenous cultures, we will see a steady distance made between the two. From the economic section we will now move on to issues of environmental importance for indigenous people. 6 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 3. 0 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES According to Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) the term „environment? refers to all the â€Å"conditions, circumstances and influences surrounding, and affecting the development of an organism or group of organisms†. He speaks of ecotourism, coining it as â€Å"environmentally-responsible travel to relatively un-disturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature that promotes conservation, has low visitor impact and provides for beneficially active socioeconomic involvement of local populations† (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). Tourists may class themselves as „ecotourists? , but this term does not represent who they are. A lot of the time, thinking we are „doing good? for the environment, actual amounts to us being the producers of negative impacts for native people and the ecosystem. This arises due to the problem of littering, the locals producing vast amounts of their resources, i. e. firewood for the creation of log cabins, as well as the de-population of some species of animal native to a particular area due to the visitor? s impacts (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). 3. 1 Ecotourism and Indigenous Lands Indigenous people, for some time now, have been present in the context of „ecotourism? and its marketing campaigns. Even still, the native people have stayed ignorant to the real fact of what it? s all about. This is happening without them understanding the full extent of what they are dealing with. Indigenous people are taking their own initiative on the matter and are contesting against the so-called industry „experts? to make their own views and opinions heard on ecotourism (Johnston, 2006, pp. 3-4). At the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues which took place on the 15th May, 2003, many issues were brought to the fore– among the issues were tourism and the severity of damage it had done to the land of indigenous people (United Nations, 2003b). Ayitegau Kouevi, a member of the forum and also an indigenous expert stated that: â€Å"all indigenous people shared a social and ecological relationship with their land† (United Nations, 2003b). People worried regarding the way in which the land was used and the controlling of their resources (United Nations, 2003b). Tourism helps families in indigenous communities is true to some extent, but when it takes these people away from their traditional working of the land for food and crops to work in tourism jobs, then the outcomes become significant. Tourism increases the amount that these people will have to hand over to buy staple foods. A cycle of these people being held in the poverty trap is seen, even when/if they decide to work in tourism (Johnston, 2006, page 8). 7 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 3. 2 Ifugao Rice Terraces, Philippines: Under Threat A publication by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) (2008a) was completed on a specific example of one such indigenous community bearing the brunt of these environmental impacts. The Ifugao are an indigenous people who hail from the Cordillera Mountains in Northern Luzon, Philippines. Through their own way of life, they have been able to preserve and carry on their own traditions which are alive within their rituals, land and native craftworks. They are a people who have depended solely upon themselves to maintain their cultural heritage (Bulilan, 2007). As with other cases on environmental impacts of tourism, much the same is seen to be happening to the native people and their land. As tourism became more pronounced in this area of the Philippines in the early 1920? s, tourism development started to take place. From then until now, a lot of this development has severely impacted on the local land. This area of Ifugao is well-known for its beautiful undulating rice terraces, for which it has become a world heritage site (UNESCO, 2008a). Even still, the dire planning of infrastructure in the area (due to the lack of or non-zoning policies) has led to many problems. Water resources are not up to liveable standards and the land is left with little strength as it is drained of all its natural reserves for infrastructure. A direct result of this is that staple diet foods, i. e. the sustainable rice crop is destroyed and this directly impacts upon the people of the area and their natural food source. Rivers which held innumerable amounts of fish are now used as dumping grounds and the clean air is filled with harmful gases from transport vehicles which frequent the area (UNESCO, 2008a). The first tourist destination to arise in Ifugao was in Banaue (UNESCO, 2008a). With this development, tourism was said to have been the core cause of the deprivation that the environment was experiencing. More problems came in the form of water supply to the rice fields being exhausted as the influx of tourism increased the want for locally carved souvenirs made from wood. In turn, this has increased the level of deforestation in Banaue, as well as in other towns. In what should have been an attractive and aesthetically inviting area, Banaue now has a stark contrast between garish concrete buildings and the native Ifugao homesteads (UNESCO, 2008a). 8 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 3. 3 Sanitation Systems, Littering and Waste Disposal Another extremely important, but still very prominent environmental impact of tourism which can affect local communities is the area of sanitation systems, littering and waste disposal. According to Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) waste can affect soil, vegetation, cultivation and even our air which we breathe. There is no „safe? way of disposing of waste, but the only thing to inevitably stop it is to prevent its production in the first place. Of course, this would prove an immediate problem. In some national parks around the world visitors are given small plastic litter bags to dispose of waste in, but even still, a fundamental mistake was made in the bags being made of plastic, when they should be made of paper. Human waste and littering is leading to the contamination of local people? s water systems, which in itself brings a whole host of health problems. In many areas of the world, indigenous people still fight for their right to the land they were raised upon. They want to be recognised as the owners of the land, the people who cultivate, nurture and maintain it. There needs to be more community involvement with local and indigenous people and the development of tourism. If the locals are recognised as having a part to play in protecting their land and having it „used?in the right way, without it being exploited by tourism development, then perhaps a happier, more sustainable ending might be seen. 9 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 3. 4 Nepal: Tourism Effects on the Environment and the Indigenous Sherpa Environment: Nepal is a well-known tourist destination these days. Many people go there for the purpose of trekking and hiking for days with the help of Sherpa? s, an ethnic group of devout Buddhists living in north-eastern Nepal (Reid, 2003, p54). Due to the large number of tourists who visit this area every year, tourism has taken its toll on the environment. Pollution is visible on most routes, working on its own or as a combination with other underlying issues, such as: lack of hygiene, lack of proper sanitation systems (for locals, guides and Sherpa porters) and the lack of awareness people actually have about the environment (Pandey et al, 1995). Deforestation and pollution issues are still major causes for the environments deprivation, especially in the mountainous areas, but tourism has still become an opportunity for people here to make a decent living (Pandey et al, 1995). Indigenous Sherpas: Out of the 30 or so indigenous groups in Nepal, Sherpas are the most well-known. In fact, Sherpas have a role within the tourism industry rivalled by few indigenous people around the world (Reid, 2003, p54). While less can be said for the environmental impacts of tourism, the tourism industry has been, as a whole, decent enough to the Sherpa people regarding income, better lifestyles and opportunities. When most Sherpa families relied on herding their yaks and harvesting their potatoes, they turned away from the advances of modernization, but now the Sherpa? s are tied to tourism and its development through a very strong hold (Reid, 2003, p55). Ang Rita Sherpa, a graduate of the Khumjung school who now leads the Edmund Hillary foundation in Kathmandu defined three advancements in history which helped the lives of the Sherpa to become what it is today the incoming British tourists of the 19th century brought with them potato plants which was recognised as a new staple crop, the introduction of iodine in the 20th century meant that public health was improved considerably and finally, the westerners who came and saw the mountains and longed to climb them paved the way for the foundation of a tourism economy. This economy has given more stability than the Sherpa? s agricultural or trading activities ever gave (Reid, 2003, p57). The Sherpas are still a strong people, rooted in their history and culture. Through tourism, some of their culture has given way to modernisation and their land has been negatively impacted upon by tourism, but for the most part, they remain true to their way of life. So much so, that the whole idea of building roads through these tourist mountain passes seems 10 6/12/2011. BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 senseless and environmentally wrong to them. They believe having no roads is an â€Å"essential element of the Sherpa condition†. The rimpoche, an important Buddhist lama who lives on Mt. Tempoche in Nepal, said that â€Å"there will never be a road – not in my life-time, not in our children’s lifetime. We are Sherpas. We walk† (Reid, 2003, p71). As we can see, the Sherpas of Nepal are advancing slowly with tourism, but still have a grasp on their traditional ways. Tourism has most definitely brought new opportunities to them so far, but it is the way in which they manage the incoming tourists to their destination which will help in protecting their indigenous culture. 3. 5 Traditional Knowledge: Medicinal Plant Misuse through Bio-Piracy Bio-piracy, according to the ETC Group (Action Group on Erosion, Technological and Conservation, 2005) is â€Å"the appropriation of the knowledge and genetic resources of farming and indigenous communities by individuals or institutions who seek exclusive monopoly control (patents or intellectual property) over these resources and knowledge†. According to the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC, 2004) â€Å"the market for herbal remedies in North America and Europe has risen by 10% every year for the past decade, research indicates. It is now thought to be worth at least ? 11bn†. There is no doubt that this trade is so huge because companies want to market these remedies in a consumer marketplace. They are not taking into consideration the environmental effects it has on the land and the effect it has on the local people. According to Malani (2003) the importance of traditional knowledge to indigenous people is enormous. Local people around the world rely on this knowledge, handed down for generations, to advance through their daily lives and through their healing in times of sickness. Worryingly, due to the increase of value in this traditional knowledge, many organisations have essentially thrown themselves on the bandwagon to profit from this knowledge (Malani, 2003). The awful truth is that whereas indigenous people see these medicinal plants as having an important therapeutic value, the only „value? companies? associate with using this sacred knowledge is commercial-based (Malani, 2003). Some communities are still somewhat oblivious to bio-piracy. In a remote village in Kenya, the Maasai have introduced an interactive exhibit of plants which shows tourists what particular plants/shrubs they use for curing illnesses and how they use them. The plants are 11 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 labelled by name and are each presented on a coloured stone tablet (Johnston, 2006, p103). Visitors are not allowed pick the shrubs, but are shown their uses which might satisfy them enough and deter them from taking a sprig of one home with them. A different approach was taken by the Nlaka? pamux people of Canada who have set in stone their own rules and regulations when it comes to disclosure of their traditional knowledge. They have created their own line of herbal soaps for tourists under the name „Siska Traditions?. These soaps come with an information pamphlet with describes the basic medicinal properties which they hold, and nothing more. A simple introduction is all that is needed to ensure, for now, protection of their indigenous knowledge (Johnston, 2006, p103). The practice of bio-piracy is still widespread around the globe and is drying out the land of its natural herbal remedies. The utilization of indigenous people? s knowledge of medicinal plants and the exploitation of their lands for this purpose is still a major issue. 12 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 4. 0 SOCIO-CULTURAL ISSUES Sofield (1991) (cited in Ramchander, 2004, p4) described socio-cultural impacts of tourism as â€Å"the sum total of all the social and cultural influences that come to bear upon the host society as a result of tourism contact†. Many studies have been done which deal with the local people? s feelings and attitudes towards tourism and impacts of tourism to their area. According to Swarbrooke (1999) the socio-cultural impacts of tourism are sometimes invisible and intangible and the most worrying as aspect of these impacts are that they are largely irreversible when they have been done. Normally, the effects of these impacts lie on the host community. The answer lies in the relationships which the tourist and the host community create with one another (Swarbrooke, 1999). Increasingly in the last number of years, tourists have been travelling to destinations with have an inclination towards travel for a varied product offering – they now travel for historical, archaeological and traditional purposes, as well as for the atmosphere they get from being in a particular place (Besculides et al, 2002). Cultural tourism, in general, sees a want in the tourist to establish communication with the host culture and with their environment. Tourists now have a curiosity to understand the native? s behaviours, traditions and cultural identity (Besculides et al, 2002). Kreag (2001) identified several positive and negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism which can have profound effects on indigenous people. They ranged from improving the quality of life of the host community and promoting cultural exchange, to drinking, alcoholism and gambling, displacement of residents and an unwanted lifestyle change. As we can see, impacts of tourism to a community can either be an asset to that community or can be to their detriment. Relevant and ongoing socio-cultural issues will now be discussed further. 13 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 4. 1 Aiming to Please and Relative Deprivation Acculturation: Sometimes host communities want to please the tourist and sometimes they can adopt tourist behaviour. This is known as acculturation. According to the International Organisation for Migration (IOM, 2004) acculturation can be defined as â€Å"the progressive adoption of elements of a foreign culture (ideas, words, values, norms, behaviour, institutions) by persons, groups or classes of a given culture and this partial or total adaptation is caused by contacts and interactions between different cultures through migration and trade relations†. This can be detrimental to the host community – they slowly lose their own way of life by being influenced by the tourist. Relative Deprivation: It seems that the impact tourists have on a particular area may actually affect the native people? s feelings about themselves and this, in turn, can cause bitterness toward the visiting influx of tourists to their homeland. (Runciman, 1966), cited in (Walker and Smith, 2002) explained that relative deprivation deals with the idea of people comparing their own lives with that of the other individuals or other social groups. Depending on what type of person they compare themselves with; this will determine the level of resentment which they will inevitably feel. An interaction which takes place between both cultures (tourist and host) can provide new opportunities, but could also suppress independence, as well as forcing a community to adopt a different ethical behaviour, one which they are not used to. This could come in a positive way, e. g. improved understanding between males and females (as many countries think differently about this aspect of social life) or by an increased use of drugs, perhaps (Kreag, 2001). This can create a whole host of other problems, such as an increase in violence in the area. 14 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 4. 2 Traditional Ceremonies and the Tourist Gaze Traditional ceremonies native to specific tribes or groups of indigenous people may be rejuvenated by incoming tourist interests in culture, but these traditional ceremonies may also be lost (Kreag, 2001). Many see culture as a product or service when they travel. It? s as if it? s part of the whole experience and they demand to have it. According to Johnston (2006), whether a tour which tourists partake in whilst on holidays is nature-oriented or ethnicallyoriented, the local indigenous culture will be included in this whole „package? , a lot of the time without the native? s say-so or contribution. This is an unacceptable use of people? s culture for marketing tourism and is one of the negative impacts on indigenous people – it is an ethical issue which has been brought up by indigenous people constantly. The Toraja people of Sulawesi, Indonesia, took the idea of a traditional ceremony shown to the outside world to the extreme, one might say. Following the death of a high-status Toraja figure in December, 1991, a camera crew came, with consent from this man? s family, to film the funeral ceremony in full. The idea behind it was to capture an â€Å"exotic† Toraja funeral, complete with animal sacrifices and rituals being performed in front of the camera lens (Yamashita, 1994). The son of the deceased, a wealthy businessman who had made it big in his early life in the city of Ujung Padang, paid $10,000 as a „co-operation fee? to the production company. We are still taking into account here that even though Sampe (son of the deceased) was well-off, the majority of the Toraja are peasants. Two things were happening in this situation – 1. Sampe, the deceased? s son, was conscious that showcasing his father? s funeral would promote Toraja for tourism purposes. The Indonesian government was also getting on the bandwagon and had endorsed this behaviour by influencing ethnic culture so that it could then market the area to tourists from elsewhere. The second was that the tourists could photograph and record the ceremony, under the spell of the „tourist gaze?. The „tourist gaze? , described by John Urry, is when â€Å"Places are chosen to be gazed upon because there is anticipation, especially through daydreaming and fantasy, of intense pleasures, either on a different scale or involving different senses from those customarily encountered† (Urry, 2002, p3). Other re-enforcers of this „tourist gaze? are seen through watching T. V. , reading magazines, etc The local tradition of the Toraja became removed from the culture of these people and was turned into a commodity for the tourist to consume (Yamashita, 1994). The Toraja of Sulawesi was one such case study whereby not only the tourists were taking full advantage of 15 6/12/2011 BA (Hons) Tourism Marketing Year 3 a traditional ceremony, but the local people too, to some extent, for the beneficial outcome it would give them regarding tourism to the area. Needless to say, these cultural impacts are having a profound effect on indigenous people worldwide and some have come to reject tourism altogether. The American Indian Movement (1984) stated its warning many times – â€Å"We condemn those who seek to profit from Indian Spirituality