Relationship between the mind and the brain

Relationship between the mind and the brain For centuries, philosophers and scientist have been trying to solve the problem of the mind-body (brain). The most prolific of the minds has wandered sleeplessly, trying to solve the mind-brain problem, yet, the mysteries behind our skulls remain hidden. This paper is an attempt to address the causality problem of the mind and the brain. Firstly, an overview over the philosophical theories will be done. Subsequently, evaluation of certain scientific findings which may hold the answer will be carried out. Finally, the essay will end with a conclusion about these findings. Part of the problem is whether one, (the mind or the brain), could plausible exist given the existence of the other. If this is the case, how are they associated? Does a relationship exist or are they two distinct realms. Many philosophers and scientists have made an attempt to explain and resolve the mind-brain problem. Two major philosophical theories have been proposed as a solution; dualism and monism. Followers of the dualistic theory argue that there are two fundamental entities mind and brain. The mind and the brain functions separately, without interchange. Conversely, monistic advocates, instead, argue that there is only one reality and the mind and the brain are formed from, or reducible to, the same ultimate substance or principle of being. The former, however, is hard to contradict and/or support scientifically and therefore is not popular amongst scientists and psychologists (Valentine, 1992). However, in recent years, a third explanation, pluralism, has emerged. Plural ism is a mix of both monism and dualism. It argues that there is one fundamental reality but it may display different aspect of the reality. In order to evaluate whether a relationship exists between the mind and the brain in the first place, we need to know if what the mind is. One explanation of the concept of mind is (1) conscious experience and (2) the system or program that governs behaviour (Valentine, 1992, pp. 21). For the simplicity, we will consider consciousness as the definition of the mind. However, we need to first explain what consciousness is. In psychology, consciousness is defined as our relative awareness of ourselves and our environments. Additionally, it is subjective for an individual, has changeable intensity and we have a sense of ourselves and our consciousness (Passer Smith, 2007). Consciousness has been studied using modern tools such as fMRI or PET. These studies have showed activation in several brain areas for a stimulus that is normally associated with a certain brain area (Dehaene Naccache 2001; Haier et al., 1992). Global workspace theory suggests that the otherwise independent brain reg ions functions as network enabled by the consciousness (Baars, 2002; Baars, 1997). Additionally, observational studies have indicated that certain brain injuries (blindsight, visual agnosia) have resulted in the loss of aspects of consciousness (Goodale, 2000; Kentridge et al., 2004; Weiskrantz, 2002). If we then assume that the mind is conscious experience, does the mind control the brain or is the mind a result of neural activity? Libet, Gleason, Wright and Pearl (1983) found that neural activity precedes conscious experience of indenting to act (the so-called readiness potential, RP). In a replication of this study by Haggard and Eimer (1999), awareness of movement followed a later module of the RP, the lateralized readiness potential (LRP). LRP represents the neural activity over the motor cortex in the hemisphere that controls the opposite side of the body. Haggard and Eimer (1999) suggested that awareness of movement may arise from neural processes linked to the selection of a n action to follow a certain goal. Additionally, part of the medial frontal cortex has been identifies as being responsible for intentional actions. Conversely, Haggard Libet (2001) note that the delay of conscious experience to the actual experience itself may be due to the P-centre phenomenon (Morton et al., 1976 c.f. Haggard Libet, 2001)., which originally refers to that the perceived onset of a acoustic words delays its actual onset, and seems to be drawn by the centre of the word. It is argued that this can be equally applied to internal events as intentions might also be extended in time. Haggard Libet (2001, pp. 7), argue that the earliest stages of that process could perhaps precede the LRP onset. However, new findings on cellular memory may oppose the notion consciousness being located only in the brain. A Japanese research group showed that an amoeba learned the patterns of a series of shocks at regular intervals and accordingly changed its behaviour in anticipation of the next one to come. Remarkably, the memory stayed for hours, even then the shocks stopped. A single renewed shock after a silent period left the plasmodia expecting another to follow in the same rhythm it learned earlier (Saigusa, Tero, Nakagaki Kuramoto, 2008). Additionally, these amoebas could also negotiate mazes and solve simple puzzles (Nakagaki, Yamada, TÃ ³th, 2000). The implications of these studies could go so far that it could be argued that consciousness may arise from some cellular or sub-cellular level of organization rather than nerve circuitry. There have been cases where organ receivers have unexplainably inherited traits which were not there prior to the transplantations. Although these cases are arbitrary and vague and there may be several other plausible explanations, the stories are interesting and may lead to some serious scientific investigation at some point in the future. On the other hand, conscious experience alone can not account for the mind as a majority of our behaviour also occur unconsciously. Jaynes (1986) listed several things such as, size, brightness, etc. that is preserved by our nervous system under widely varying environmental changes of light, distance etc. Additionally, consciousness is not necessary for learning. Conditioning, for example, is often subtly induced by some stimuli without our awareness. In fact, being conscious during conditioning hinders the effect of it once we are aware of the eventuality (Razran, 1971 c.f. Jaynes, 1986). If we, instead, discuss the concept of mind in terms of a system or program that governs behaviour (Valentine, 1993, chapter 3, pp. 20), the mind can be attributed a totally different role. It is established that the frontal lobes has a major role in our personality. The prefrontal cortex has a superior role in the neuropsychological system. It has access to a vast amount of information that is sto red and is processing in the brain. Additionally, it is able to directly and indirectly control activation of the cerebral resources. In particular, the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal cortex has been identified as being responsible for coordination, psychological control and executive functions. The motor and sensory network is closely weaved together with the area, which enables it to have full access to information about the condition of the own body and the surrounding world as well as having the opportunity to integrate with the environment. It has also a close relationship to the orbital cortex, which is associated with our thoughts, decision-making and behaviour influenced by emotional and social values of situations as it has a high number of interconnections with the limbic system. Damage to the dorsolateral region is characterized by loss of the ability to take initiative, psychological independence and integrity. The patient becomes passive, impulsive and aimless. S he is not able to mobilize and orient attention or thoughts in an organized manner. However, as prefrontal cortex is highly complicated, it has been difficult to closely investigate exactly what sort of psychological work that bark area executes, which has made this part of the brain a riddle to be solved (Eriksson, 2001). Considering these facts and the fact that the dorsolateral cortex is highly situated in the hierarchy of the brain, it could be argued that the area is the place where the mind resides. In this sense, the mind is an extension and the superior of the brain. Evolutionary speaking, this would make sense. According to Paul MacLean, three distinct brains emerged successively in the course of evolution and co-inhabit the human skull. These are, in evolutionary-time order, reptile brain, limbic brain and the neo-cortex (Holden, 1979). These three parts do not operate independently of one another; rather, they have established numerous interconnections through which they influence another (Passer Smith, 2007). In a similar way, the mind might somehow evolved in parallel with the neo-cortex. Nevertheless, in brain surgeries on monkeys showed bluntness in all of aspects of their emotion. Myers (c.f. Eriksson, 2001) noted the animals loss of noises, facial expressions and, general, all forms of communication. The animal, generally, suffers from hyperactivity, mutism and behaves like an automat. However, the idea that the prefrontal cortex is the seat of the mind lacks any real scientific support or research as it would be very difficult to determine how it is possible as the mind is a non-physical substance. Yet, future minds, with the assistance of perhaps new and more advanced technology may find a way to tackle this issue. In sum, we have first used consciousness as the definition of the mind and tried to address the relationship of consciousness to the brain. Scientific evidence has supported the notion of brain activity causing consciousness. However, these studies have had some methodological issues which need to be dealt with. Additionally, we have established that consciousness alone may not account for the mind as many of our processes also occur outside awareness. Instead, we have identified the prefrontal cortex as the seat of the mind. However, this is hard to prove and explain at present time. In conclusion, the sort of a problem the mind and brain is makes it difficult to construe and study scientifically as it is hard to conduct decent experiments on. For now, science needs to mature further in order to answer whether a relationship exists between the mind and the brain along with the direction of the relationship.

Cohesion in English Essay

The study of cohesion in English is concerned with a relatively neglected part of the linguistic system, which is the formal understanding of text construction and the ways in which parts of the text are interrelated so that meaning can be understood as one in relation to another. It is an interesting way to see the ways in which the sentences are constructed in order to avoid ambiguity and turbidity of the conveyance of meaning (Halliday and Hasan 1976; Taboada 2004). A principal component of the study of ‘cohesion’ is that which arise from semantic relations between sentences. Reference from one to the other, repetition of word meanings, the conjunctive force of ‘but’, ‘so’, ‘then’ and the like are considered. The work describes a method for analysing and coding sentences, which is applied to specimen texts (Halliday and Hasan 1976; Taboada 2004). According to the work of Hasan and Halliday (1976) about the heuristic and semantic study of language, in terms of how the texts cohere, there are five devices of cohesion that govern the unity of a passage, sentence or an idea. The five categories of the devices of cohesion in English are namely: reference, which can be anaphoric, cataphoric and exophoric; substitution, ellipses, conjunction and lexical cohesion. These types or rules are inherent in most of the ways compositions are constructed in order that they will achieve a certain degree of unity and fluidity. In many ways, the models of cohesion, the devices and rules, allow for a mathematically tautological description of text with regards to its natural relation to some of its other parts contained within the same (Halliday and Hasan 1976). In the text provided below for analysis, the five types of cohesion occur several times if not in a lot of occasions. However, prior to dissecting the passage into any of these tools of cohesion, it is important to understand what the text is entirely about in order that the main idea is revealed to serve as guide to the discovery of the aforementioned categories of cohesion. It would appear that the passage is an autobiographical account of someone’s experiences and observations of previous visits and stay in Birmingham. On this particular occasion the author confides his own impression of the kind of hustle and bustle the city is known for and how he relates it to the image of teenager’s bedroom. Along with descriptions of disarray yet harmonic organization of the city, he recalls one of the times he has been in the city. At that point, he starts to talk about the meeting with a friend. He moves then from a general view of Birmingham into a more specific locale of the city: the neighborhood of his friend Mike Walter. Through this, the author was able to explain more of what Birmingham is like by going in-depth. Furthermore, the author tells us about the kind of culture they have in Birmingham, for instance, how the locals are ‘affectionately’ called—the ‘Brummies’, and likewise, their love for autos and highways. It is obvious the author tries to keep within his central idea or thesis in the entire narrative. He did not stray far afield his main topic, albeit some of his digressions were a bit lengthy and varied. Instead, each side-note and anecdotes only improves and completes the image of what we have about Birmingham city thus far. To go into technicalities, we now look at the model of cohesion in English. There are five devices in the model. The first device of cohesion is called reference, which has three subcategories, namely the 1) anaphoric, 2) cataphoric, 3) exophoric references. The first can be characterized as the device of reference which occurs when the writer points back to an already named or identified object with another word to avoid repetition. Instead of saying the particular term over and over, another word is used in the next phrases to mean the very same thing or object. For example, the author’s view of Birmingham is referenced by the word ‘that’ – ramshackle of factories, warehouses, container yards, transport depots, workshops, chunneys, tower blocks, offices – which are ‘all’ thrown together as if by accident. The word ‘that’ referred to the view of Birmingham, likewise, the word ‘all’ referred to the images concomitant to such a view. The second is quite like the reverse of the first where the object that is being referred to comes after the use of the word that refers it. The use of cataphoric reference is seldom used. It is usually employed to achieve a dramatic effect as if the purposeful delay in disclosing the information would heighten the feeling of suspense and intrigue (Hoey 1991). The object is introduced by a word that is general and later is clarified by naming the object itself. At the first paragraph, the sentence employs the same cataphoric effect in withholding whatever that ‘it’ means. Later on, its reference is revealed at the end of the paragraph whereby the ‘it’ becomes the â€Å"train† (the turn of phrase is therefore imbued with an enhanced degree of dramatic delay). The third type of reference cohesion is the exophoric—literally meaning ‘coming from the outside’. In other words, the reference is neither contained in the passage nor will the reader ever find out for certain what, who, when and where the reference word is referring to. Although the third bears some similarities with the cataphoric reference cohesion, it is largely set apart and differentiated to such by the very fact that in this device of cohesion, the reference is usually general and broad in character. Unlike cataphoric reference, exophoric takes the intrigue, so to speak, to another level by using abstract and vague terms that practically would mean anything or everyone, as the case may be. The reader will never be able to identify the object being referred to in so far as an exact name or category is not given (Hoey 1991). The phrase â€Å"there were very few of us there† in the subsequent paragraphs is a good example of exophoric reference. While the reader may infer that the word ‘us’ refers to the people whom the author met in an assembly called the Birmingham Rep—where ‘they’ exchanged casual chit-chat and intellectual ruminations to pass the time, it is never sure what sort of bunch the word ‘us’ is actually composed of. With only the exception of author himself and his friend Mike Walters, ‘us’ could virtually mean any group of two or more persons with varying and distinct personalities and localities, and perhaps hailing from across different parts of the country. All of which the author fails to mention in exact details. Another device of cohesion is called an ellipsis. It is a device that could either enhance the reader’s understanding of the text or it could perhaps confuse it. Ellipsis occurs when after a more specific mention some words are stricken off when the phrase needs to be repeated. Accordingly, long lists of the same class to describe an object may be stopped short or left to hang in the middle of the sentence thereby suspending the train of the thought of the reader and allowing him to imagine for himself the next logical addition (Hoey 1991). Following the ellipsis is the device cohesion that is a bit similar to the ellipsis but instead of leaving out the word completely, a substitute word is used. Take for instance the phrase â€Å"cities are cities, and in this one there is a lot to see†. The word ‘one’ effectively substitutes the word city and that city would refer to Birmingham. Notice that ‘one’ is general yet it still is able to represent Birmingham by means of the preceding information about cities being cities. Substitute cohesion is a double reflection of a general reference of a specific object. Put differently, substitution is two degrees away from the original object as it only substitutes, perhaps, the anaphoric reference cohesion, for example, in a text. The fourth device of cohesion is conjunction, or words that connect or divide phrase by relating them to one another through a temporal, causal, coordinating, adversative, additive or discourse markers. These are the points of the texts which prompts the reader that the following passages are merely continuation of or branches to the previous statements (Hoey 1991). Even with the usage of punctuation marks and sentence gaps, the reader is guided through the next sentences or paragraphs because of the conjunction markers. Furthermore, conjunctions are used to make sure that the sentences cohere and are not left a stranger of sorts to the other. Conjunctions connect them all in one unified piece (Hoey 1991). Conjunction occurs often times in any text. In the particular text that is to be analyzed here, the words ‘before’, ‘always’, ‘and’, ‘also’, ‘first’, ‘just as’ and so on are used generously in the entire narrative. This is so because the entire text does not disassemble itself with loosely or unconnected thoughts and ideas. Otherwise, some of the digressions would be seen as impertinent and meaningless. And lastly is the lexical device of cohesion. This is the repetition of words throughout a text, or even in a single sentence, that are ejusdem generis or under the same class or category. It can form relational patterns through the entire passage which would help the reader clearly perceive a singular theme that the author wishes to present. In most cases, this construction of the text is akin to the ideas of rhetorical parallelism, wherein repeated or similar words are said in a way that will sound naturally cohesive and unified (Hoey 1991). This device is used well in the assigned text wherein the ‘view of Birmingham city’ is referred to repeatedly as an image, example and representation. It becomes clear that the whole passage revolves around Birmingham city, and it does not lack in describing in full detail how it looks and what it is like to the author. Lexemes, in the manner it was used, made the passage appear as a solid and complete whole without insufficiencies or other facts that beg further clarification. All in all, the five devices of cohesion in the English language are excellent tools for both the writer and the reader to come up with a crystal clear understanding and appreciation of any composition with the proper use of logical connectives and semantic devices as those discussed. These rules of cohesions also help in correcting certain logical errors and clarifying ambiguities, on top of making sure that the text is readable and understandable. What is to be avoided are entire sentences and paragraphs that do not appear to belong together simply because they do not cohere. In other words, cohesion in English will prevent nonsensical and shoddy writing above and beyond anything else. However, there is the question of whether or not these devices of cohesion may be able to account for the different idioms and the modern slang of English. While it is true that the puritans have a point in preserving the formal qualities of the language, it is inevitable that certain phrases and sentence construction will evolve into strange forms of communication, conveyance and presentation which could well probably be just as comprehensible and clear as its regular counterpart in formal composition. The slang and idiom are major limitations to the model of cohesion in English precisely because they do not follow a strict logical pattern. Moreover, their usages vary from across different subcultures and multi-contexts. It would be interesting indeed to find out how these devices and categories will still be able to keep up with the ever-changing rules on grammar and semantics. Perhaps other additions to the categories would be necessary in the future to make for a better way to read and write in English. Just as other languages like Russian, German, French, Spanish (Taboada 2004) or even Chinese do not possess all of the inherent idiosyncrasies of the five categories of cohesion and may even employ other styles not mentioned by the work of Halliday and Hasan (1976), English slang may have its own nuances and jargon that must also be respected and welcomed in formal, modern rhetoric. It now remains a novel and intriguing question how this is to be achieved.

Alphabet Fun At New York City - 1070 Words

Alphabet Fun in New York City â€Å"Hi!† Livi greeted with a smile and a wave of her hand. â€Å"I’m Livi and this is my sister Jojo.† She said, gesturing to her sister, who stood smiling beside her on the crowded sidewalk.†We’ll be your tour guides today.† Jojo said, while Livy added, â€Å"We love to travel and find things in each city that represent letters in the alphabet.† The two walked down the street, sky scrapers reaching up to the clouds on each side of them. â€Å"Today we are in New York City and you guessed it, we are starting with the letter A! Livi said excitedly. â€Å"A is for Apple – New York City is known as the Big Apple.† Jojo said, as they stopped on the corner of the street. â€Å"It’s believed that the origin of the Big Apple comes†¦show more content†¦Shortly after, they made their way back to Central Park. â€Å"C is for Central Park.† Jojo said, taking a picture of the entrance. â€Å"Central Park is an urban park in middle-upper Manhattan, within New York City. Central Park is the most visited urban park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013!† Livi said, watching the birds flutter from tree to tree. â€Å"It is also one of the most filmed locations in the world.† Jojo smiled, watching as a film crew went by. D is for E is for the Empire State Building The Empire State Building is a 102-story skyscraper located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, on Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets. F is for Fifth Avenue G is for Grand Central Station Grand Central Terminal is a commuter, rapid transit railroad terminal at 42nd Street and Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, United States. H is for I is for Island, as in Ellis Island Ellis Island, in Upper New York Bay, was the gateway for over 12 million immigrants to the United States as the nation s busiest immigrant inspection station from 1892 until 1954. J is for ` K is for L is for Liberty Island Liberty Island is a federally owned island in Upper New York Bay in the United States, best known as the location of the Statue of Liberty. M is

Cuban National Culture Cubas Original People - 1719 Words

The article first talks about the development and character of Cuban national culture: Cuba’s original people. It discusses the historical events that occurred in Cuba and how those historic events have shaped Cuba’s culture. It talks about the original tribes that were on Cuba’s land for decades, which were Taino and Siboney Amerindian tribes. They were originally one of the first groups to help shape the Cuban culture. After a while, Spanish invaders came to Cuba and took over the land and put its own set of rules and traditions. This is how Cuba got its mixture of cultures, between the Spanish culture, Armenian culture and African culture coming together in Cuba. Also, this section of the article talks about words that developed in Cuba from all the mixtures of countries and cultures. Kronenberg states in the article â€Å"Culture, nation and social cohesion: a scrutiny of revolutionary Cuba† (2008), that some of these words are â€Å"words like †˜hammock’, ‘manatee’, ‘yucca’, ‘hurricane’, and ‘tobacco’, which can be regarded as the ‘last surviving parting gift’ or ‘retributive curse’ the original inhabitants of the Caribbean offered to their Spanish captors†(pg. 51). This is a small interesting fact to learn about the early Cuban culture and to see where Cuba got some of its influences from and what they originally kept from those influential countries. 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